Ex.5. Using the following endings, change each of the following words into a verb.

Model: soft +-en → soften; motive + -ate → motivate; memory + -ize → memorize; note + -ify → notify.

Short, final, dark, separation, intense, industrial, different, person, demonstration, identity, sweet, just.

Ex.6. Make up adjectives from the following nouns as in the model.

Model: noun + - ful/-ous = adjective

e.g. success → successful; danger → dangerous

Care, doubt, duty, event, harm, help, hope, law, peace, power, purpose, skill, thought, truth, use;

advantage, fame, humour, industry, labour, luxury, mystery, religion.

Ex.7. What does prefix co- mean in the following words? Translate them into Ukrainian.

Co-worker, co-owner, co-author, co-operative, cooperation, coexistence, coordination.

Text a: forms of business organisations

Active Vocabulary

Entrepreneurship, as one of the factors of production, has its particular function. It brings together the other three – Land, Capital and Labour. When they are successful, entrepreneurs earn profit. When they are not successful, they suffer losses.

There are numerous reasons why people do business. Financial independence and security, profit potential, desire for achievement and self-fulfilment, the opportunity to work at something they really love are some of these reasons.

When organising a new business, one of the most important decisions to be made is choosing its structure. The choice will be based on the entrepreneur’s vision regarding the size and nature of the business, the level of control he or she wishes to have, expected profit of the business, the risks for the business’s assets from liabilities, the business's vulnerability to lawsuits and so on. In view of these requirements, different forms of business organisations - sole proprietorships, partnerships and corporations – have their advantages and disadvantages.

Sole Proprietorships

The vast majority of small businesses start out as sole proprietorships. These firms are owned by one person, usually the individual, who has day-to-day responsibility for running the business. A sole proprietor enjoys a number of advantages. First and foremost, it is the easiest and least expensive form of ownership to organize. Sole proprietors are in complete control, within the law, over all decisions. They receive all income generated by the business to keep or reinvest. The business is easy to dissolve, if desired. This form of business organisations is the most flexible and adaptable to changing times because of their ability to restructure themselves and react more quickly and successfully to changes than large corporations. Sole proprietorships do not have to pay special taxes placed on corporations. On the less bright side, however, is the fact that a sole proprietor has unlimited liability. He assumes "complete personal" responsibility for all of his business’s liabilities or debts because, in the eyes of the law, he and his business are one and the same. Besides, it is very difficult for a sole-proprietor to raise investment funds and to attract high-calibre employees from among those who are motivated by the opportunity to own a part of the business.

Partnerships

In a partnership, two or more people share ownership of a single business. Like in proprietorships, the law does not distinguish between the business and its owners. The partners should have a legal agreement that sets forth how decisions will be made, profits will be shared, disputes will be resolved, how future partners will be admitted to the partnership, how partners can be bought out, or what steps will be taken to dissolve the partnership when needed. It is a fact that a lot of partnerships split up at crisis times, and unless there is a defined process, there will be even greater problems. They also must decide up front how much time and capital each will contribute, etc.

An important argument in favour of this type of business organisations is that partnerships are relatively easy to establish. Another advantage is that with more than one owner, the ability to raise funds may be increased. Unlike in sole proprietorship, prospective employees may be attracted to the business if given the incentive to become a partner. A partnership does not pay corporate tax like corporations but only ordinary income tax, since the co-owners can use the profits gained as their personal income.

At the same time, partners are jointly and individually liable for the actions of the other partners. In case of bankruptcy, the co-owners who invested more capital (the senior partners) lose more than the junior partners, who invested less. If the business activity is successful and generates profits, they must be shared with others. Similar to a sole proprietorship, a partnership has a limited life: it may end upon a partner’s withdrawal or death. Another serious drawback of partnership is the threat of potential disagreements among partners over decision-making, which may cause management conflicts adversely affecting the business.

Corporations

A corporation is considered by law to be a unique "entity", separate and apart from those who own it. A corporation can be taxed; it can be sued; it can enter into contractual agreements. The owners of a corporation are its shareholders. The shareholders elect a board of directors to oversee the major policies and decisions. The corporation has a life of its own and does not dissolve when ownership changes.

If compared with sole proprietorships and partnerships, a corporation has distinct advantages. One of the weightiest factors is that shareholders have limited liability for the corporation's debts or judgments against the corporations. Generally, shareholders can only be held accountable for their investment in the stock of the company. Corporations have wider opportunities to raise additional funds through the sale of securities. They can transfer ownership through the transfer of securities. With all these advantages, we may wonder why there are much fewer unincorporated businesses than incorporated ones. Obviously, the answer has to do with the disadvantages of the corporation. To start with, the process of incorporation requires more time and money than other forms of organisations because this business organisation is to be created under a government charter. Corporations that are public, i.e. whose shares are sold to the public, are to disclose information about their finances and activities, which may be used by their competitors. Corporations are subject to double taxation. It means that in addition to corporate tax levied on the corporation’s profit shareholders must pay income tax imposed on their dividends.

The form of the business organisation an entrepreneur has chosen is not permanent. If the circumstances of his business change, he can always change the form of his business. For example, he may start his business as a sole proprietorship, but, as his business grows, he may take on a partner and become a partnership. Or, he may choose to incorporate in order to prevent his business creditors from pursuing his personal assets.

Language notes:

a lawsuit – судовий розгляд, позов;

if desired – при бажанні (див.нижче when needed – за необхідності; if given – поза наявності);

within the law – у рамках закону;

one and the same ­– те ж саме;

high-calibre employees – високопрофесійні працівники;

unless there is a defined process = if there is no defined process;

… a legal agreement that sets forth how … – … юридичну угоду, яка чітко формулює, як ...;

up front – тут чесно, відкрито;

withdrawal – вихід з угоди, зі складу учасників;

to be sued – залучати як відповідача за позовом;

to be held accountable – нести відповідальність, звітувати;

to incorporate – інкорпорувати, зареєструвати як корпорацію;

incorporated – акціонерний, що має статус акціонерного товариства; зареєстрований як корпорація

i.e. – id est (Latin) = that is (to say) – тобто

Note the difference:

sole proprietor (US and UK) = sole trader (US)

public limited company (UK) = close(d) corporation (US)

private limited company = open corporation (US)

shareholders (UK) = stockholders (US)

Vocabulary focus

Ex.1. Find the English equivalents in the text.

Отримувати прибуток; нести збитки; фінансова незалежність; успіх і самореалізація; активи (власність) компанії; уразливість перед судовими позовами; величезна більшість компаній малого бізнесу; управляти компанією; найбільш гнучка та адаптована форма; оподатковувати корпорації; мати необмежену відповідальність; брати на себе відповідальність; з точки зору закону; залучати висококваліфікованих працівників; спільно володіти власністю; укласти юридичну угоду; довід на користь; стимул стати партнером; нести спільну та індивідуальну відповідальність у випадку банкрутства; недолік/вада; розбіжності між партнерами; викликати конфлікти; обирати раду директорів; здійснювати нагляд над чимось; мати явні переваги; видобувати/знаходити додатковий капітал; передавати власність; надавати інформацію; підлягати подвійному оподаткуванню.

Ex.2. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and phrases.

To do business; profit potential; size and nature of the business; level of control; to have advantages and disadvantages; to have day-to-day responsibility; to be in complete control over smth; to dissolve the business; to be adaptable to smth; on the less bright side; to assume personal responsibility; to be one and the same with the business; to raise funds; to distinguish between smth; to resolve disputes; to contribute time and capital; prospective employees; threat of potential disagreement; to affect smth adversely; unique entity; one of the weightiest advantages; incorporated/unincorporated business; to be created under a government charter; to impose tax on dividends; to prevent from.

Ex.3. Give three forms of the following verbs. Find the sentences with these verbs in the text.

Bring, suffer, do, make, choose, have, own, run, keep, react, pay, attract, buy, take, contribute, raise, give, tax, sue, hold, transfer, sell, mean, grow.

Ex.4. Match the words on the left with the definitions on the right.

Ex.5. Make up verb+noun collocations (there may be several variants).

Ex.6. Fill in the gaps in the following verb collocations with appropriate prepositions or adverbs.

To base the choice _____ one’s vision; to have responsibility _____ running the business; to adapt _____ changes; to place special tax _____ corporations; to distinguish _____ the business and its owners; to admit potential partners _____ the partnership; to attract prospective employees _____ the business; to be created _____ the government charter; to be subject _____ double taxation.

Ex.7. Choose the appropriate word or phrase to complete the following sentences.

Shareholders, flexible and adaptable, drawback, corporate tax, dividends, share the ownership, advantages and disadvantages, securities, sole proprietorships, a board of directors, unlimited liability, choosing its structure, a government charter.

One of the most important decisions to be made in organizing a new business is __________ .

Different forms of business organisations – sole proprietorships, partnerships and corporations – have their __________ .

Most small businesses start out as __________ .

A sole proprietorship is __________ to changing times.

A sole proprietor has __________ for his business’s debts.

In a partnership, partners __________ of a single business.

A partnership does not pay __________ like corporations.

A serious __________ of partnerships is the threat of potential disagreement among partners.

The owners of a corporation are its __________ .

The shareholders elect _________ to oversee the major policies and decisions.

Corporations have wider opportunities to raise capital through selling its ____ .

Corporations are to be created under __________ .

In addition to corporate tax, income tax is levied on shareholders’ __________.

Ex.8. Combine two parts logically to make complete sentences.

Ex.9. Look through the text again and replace the words in bold with the linking words and phrases given below.

In view of, first and foremost, besides, like, at the same time, obviously, to start with, since, it is a fact that..., in order to..., generally.

An entrepreneur may choose to incorporate his business so that he could prevent his creditors from pursuing his personal assets.

Shareholders have limited liability for the corporation’s debts. In general, they are accountable only for their investment in the stock of the company.

Considering various requirements, sole proprietorships, partnerships and corporations have their advantages and disadvantages.

A partnership pays only ordinary income tax because the co-owners use the profits gained as their personal income. Concurrently, they are jointly and individually liable for the actions of the other partners.

If we enumerate advantages of a sole proprietorship, more than anything else it is the easiest and least expensive form of ownership. In addition to this, it does not have to pay special taxes placed on corporations.

Clearly, corporations have a number of disadvantages. In the first place, the process of incorporation is costly and time-consuming.

Similar to proprietorships, in partnerships the law does not distinguish between the business and its owners.

It is well known that a lot of partnerships are dissolved at crisis times.

Ex.10. Translate into English.

Вибір організаційної форми бізнесу заснований на уявленні підприємця про розмір і характер майбутньої компанії.

Існують різні організаційні форми бізнесу: одноосібне підприємництво, партнерство, акціонерна компанія.

Більшість компаній малого бізнесу починають свою діяльність як одноосібні підприємці.

Одноосібне підприємництво - найлегша і найменш дорога форма організації.

Така форма є більш гнучкою і пристосованою до змін на ринку.

Недоліком є той факт, що одноосібний підприємець несе необмежену відповідальність за зобов'язання фірми.

Важливим аргументом на користь партнерств є те, що їм легше залучати додаткові фінансові кошти.

Партнерства платять звичайний прибутковий податок, оскільки співвласники можуть використовувати прибуток компанії як особистий дохід.

Акціонерна компанія (корпорація) розглядається законом як самостійне підприємство, окреме від його власників.

Власниками такої компанії є її акціонери, які обирають раду директорів для управління компанією.

Однією з вагомих переваг є обмежена відповідальність акціонерних компаній.