1. The class-n of expressive means of the l-ge. The main subdivision of

stylistics.

2. Lexical means of expressiveness.

3. Discriptive tropes:

- tropes of similarity (metaphoric group)

- tropes of contiguity (metonimic group) – на смежности

- mixed group

4. Tropes expressing relations.

1) All expressive resourses of the l-ge are subdivided into:

- expressive means

- stylistic devices

Expressive means are those ling.forms and properties, that have the potential to make the utterance emphatic (expressive). This can be found on all levels: phonetic, graphical, morphological, syntactic and lexical. We find them in a l-ge as a system.

EM and SD have a lot of in common; but they are not completely synonimous. All SD belong to EM, but not all EM are SD (“girly, pigy” are EM, but not SD)

A stylistic device is a literary model in which semantic and structural features are blanded so, that it represents a generilized pattern. A SD is a concious and international intensification, which always conveys additional inf-n and is a char-c of the l-ge in action (speech) (The night has swallowed him up – metaphor).

EM have a greater degree of predictability than SD, which are only slightly or are not at all predictable. Em are means of intensification commonly used in speech.

The whole stock of stylistical revelant (значимый) l. means is traditionally subdivided into 2 classes: - tropes

- figures of speech

The terms and class-n have come to us from ancient rhetoric schools.

Tropes - (“tponos” – Greek) a turn, a change from literal to figurative m-ng. A deviation from logical usage to gain special effect.

Figures – (lat. “figura”) comprises two dif.spheres and fall into:

• figures of construction or schemes (parallel constr-ns, anaphora, epiphora, conversion) are deviations from regular syntactical pattern to create some special effect;

• figures of diction (alliteration, rhythm)

The distinction b/w them is sometimes obscure. There are a number of cases, when they are closely linked and tend to overlap (litotes, climax, zeugma).

A somewhat diff-t class-n, which is widely spread nowadays is called a Functional classification. Accord.to it all styl-ly relevant EM fall into figurative means (изобразит.ср-ва), which embrase all kinds of the trnsfer of m-ng. It may not be only: – w-ds, but

- w-combinations

- phonemes

- rhythm

- syntact.str-res

Expressive l-ge means, which don’t evoke images, but intensify the expressive power of an utterance through special arrangement of the w-ds and other means.

Modern classification. The present state of development of liguistics allows to give a new interpretation of accumulated (накопленные) facs.

Thus many ling-ts (Paulo, Arnold, Ahmonova) refer tropes to the paradigmatic level, because they may be regarded as paradigmatic units in the mind of the reader, because they may be based on the associations of a chosen w-d with others close to it in the m-ng (She is a beutiful loli of the valley). Schemes or figures of construction are regarded as syntagmatic unit, because they are based on the lineal char-re of speech on the influence of context (I kissed thee ere (before) I killed thee – Shakespeare).

Some ling-ts (Galperin) suggest one more stylistical opposition – the opposition b/w traditional sifnifiers ( and that is b/w normally fixed in the l-ge and doesn’t depend on context) and situational signifiers (that is what exist only in certain context: b/w usual and occasional).

This styl.oppsition is closely connected with the problem of the norm and its deviasions.

The stylistic approach to dif.aspects of a l-ge (voc-ry, grammar, sounds) determines the subdivision of stylistics into:

• the styl.lexicology

• the styl.semasiology

• the styl.grammar (syntax...)

• the styl.phonetics

Figures of const-n are studied in the styl. syntax; figures of dicion. – in the styl.phonetics; tropes are the subject of the styl.semasiology.

Semasiology is the science of m-ng and change of m-ng. The styl.semasiology is the science of styl-ly relevant change of m-ng. It studies expressive means on the basis of semantic interrelations and changes of m-ng in w-ds, w-combinations or sent-ces.

In tropes transferred m-ng is practically the interrelation b/w 2 types of lex.m-ng:

• dictionary (logical, direct)

• contextual contextual m-ng of the w-d is set up (противопост.) against the direct m-ng (Some of books should be tested, some – swallowed and very few – chewed and dejested)

3)DISCRIPTIVE TROPES include:

- metaphoric

- metonimic

- mixed groups

All these gropes have one feature in common. The expressive means are built on the presence of some common features of the objects, described and some others, known to the reader.

Two objects or ideas may be associated in 2 ways: by similarity or contiguity. Metaphoric group is based on the 1^st type – similarity; metonimic is based on contiguity; the mixed includes troes based bth on metaphor and metonymy.

METAPHORIC GROUP

Metaphor is a transfer of a name from one object to another on the basis of common feature:

• it’s a trope, on which and unlike objects one compared by identification or by substitution of one for another

• it is the application of a name to an object, to which it’s not literary applicable (Take away love. And our Earth is a tomb)

• is a perception of similarity in disimilars

• is a widden comparison, but not any comparing w-d is used; it’s not lex-ly expressed

There are may be dif-t variations of metaphor:

1. a noun metaphor (I’m a sheap without a radar or a night without a star – Shakespeare)

2. a w-d metaphor – the transference of the qualitative features of the ch-re.

Metaphoric is very effective, throws light on the subject of the matter as well. M. may be expressed by any part of the sent-ce, by any part od speech: nouns, nominal phrases, verbs, adj., adv., whole passages and whole works of art.

Some linguists (Cherkasova) consider M. to be not so much a transfer of m-ng, but the interaction ob dif-t m-ngs of the w-d: primary (dictionary) and secondary (contextual). Stotford (Am.) believes that M. is a new 3^rd m-ng of the w-d, the result of the interaction of 2 other m-ngs

The following basic view on M:

1. the substitution view - conveys that a M. is a simple replacement of a literal statement.

2. the comparison view – is that a M. an atriviated simile.

3. the interaction view – the interpreter reconstructs the m-ng of a M. on the basis of lexical constituants of a M. Through the interaction of the m-ngs of literaland metaph. terms a new view of concept associated with the literal arises (Black) (“Ты мое солнышко”).

Nowadays the subject of M. is very popular in ling-cs. Am. ling-ts Lakoff and Johnson in the book “M-s we live by” speak of conventional or cognitive M-s and state that M. is a basic char-c of l-ge and human cognition (познание), M. is much tired to cultural values (Time is money).

The M. discription aims at giving the new perspective to the object, it may be based on outersimilarity (внутр.), on inner functional simplicity and on puraly emotive grounds (“England has two eyes: Oxford and Cambridge” – inner function)

Simile is of the some nature as metaphor. It also shows likeness in disimilar objects. The dif-ce is b/w explicit and implicit imagery; b/w image by analogy (A is like B) and image by identification (A is B):

Ex. “Mr Brown fought like a lion” – simile

“Mr Brown was a real lion” – metaphor

The two components of a simile are joined together by conjunctions: like, as...though, as if, as...as. Sometimes the comparison may be expressed lexically by verbs to seem, to resemble, to remind of. The third way of expressing S. is by degrees of comparison (She is older than all the ices of the Arctic.

S. is a just opposition (расположенных рядом) of two objects with some common property by which one of them is more widely char-zed (She is sobing like a like tac (протекающий кран)).

S. is an expressive means, existing in dif-t l-ges (Кавказ был весь как на ладони)

One shouldn’t mix S. with logical comparison (John is as stupid as a stick – LC). S. is based on the comparison of objects belonging to dif-t classes and an element of imagination is involved (Ночь темна как душа Азефа – S.). Unlike LC, S. sets against each other quite alleien objects. Only one property of the two objects is made: comment on them is intensified to such an extend that a new understanding of the both objects is achieved (The air war warm and felt like a kiss).

S. can show definite obj.qualities of the compared objects. But sometimes not qualities but actions and status may be compared

Ex. He feels his title hanging on hin like a jails

From the hourse’s mouth (из первых рук)

He had been staring at Eva like a bull at a picknick.

S. may be negative and in this case, it is more effective than a positive S. (“Blow, blow, thou, winter wind, thou, art, not so unkind as man is gratitude” – King Lear)

To distinguish b/w S and metaphor one should remember that M aims at identifying while S keeps the objects apart (“All the world is a stage” – M). Real M has a radiating force. It radiates with expressiveness the whole s-ce and even a whole passage. There has been a growing interest in the “why” of M and S. the mechanism of these two devices. They are often refered to “as images” in the sence troups, expressing similarity.

The structure of an image:

Both simile and metaphor present str-re nad may be analised into their component parts. This scheme was suggested by Richards:

1. the 1^st component part – the tenor – the thing we are talking about.

2. the 2^nd comp-t is the vehicle – that to which the tenor is compared

3. the ground – the common feature b/w the tenor and the vehicle (основание сравнения)

It is difficult to trace and at the same time it makes it possible to associate the tenor and the vehicle (Берегись автомобиля: «Подберезовиков поглядел на нее как редактор

tenor vehicle на опечатку»)

The tenor of M may be present or only implied, while with S it is always present

Ex. The clock has struck, time was bleeding away – tenor

Darkness, when once it fell, fell like a stone.

The overall effect of M and S – the image, depends on the kind of vehicle the author chooses. The choice of vehicle may char-ze the individual style of the author, his individual outlook and also the period’s time.

Ex. “Like a dying lady...the moon arose” – vehicle

“The moon like flower” – simplicity, purity

The spheres from which vehicles were borrowed were dif-t with dif-t poets and writers. Shakespeare prefered images and vehicles from nature, Byron – vulcanou (вулкан), Shelly – water.

Sometimes the same image can have dif-t connotations with dif-t poets and writers. Byron introduces an image of proud, freedom – “loving bird”. Marlay wrote that M is a unique expression of the writer’s individual vision.

Extanded or sustained images (развернутые образы)

Images may be:

• single, expressed in one w-d (phrase)

• extatanded, developed in various way, adding new and new details to vehicle, discovering the analogy with the tenor in more than one poet, making all kinds of variations on the theme.

Thus, similes and metaphors may be realized on a supersent-ce level within a passage and sometimes within a whole book. M may be so prolonged as to become the whole str-ral organization of the book (Starnback “The cast of Edem”)

Thus, sustained M is eleborated. It is a serious of images, which are logically connected. There is the central image and contributary images.

The semantics of the image. Metaphor, simile.

1. Simile and metaohir show the likeness in disimilar objects. There must be smth striking and unexpected in every image. It must produse a surprising effect due to the discovery of some common element in two seemingly disparate (несоразмерных) phenomena. This effect is refered to as “disparity” effect (‘эффект несоответствия).

Ex. A professor must have a theory, as a dog must have a fluse.

2. Another distinctive image of the genuien (настоящего) image is multiple m-ng. In metaphor we deal with a blending of two m-ngs into one. But at the same time we consious of both w-ds, we have the impression of double image. The sentual feature of the M is a certain semantic distance b/w the tenor and the vehicle, because if they are too close, the perspective of double vision may be ruined with M as if have two transparent lanes, matched and one is seen throgh the other.

Ex. Black wires grow on her head (simile; M differs from S that fusion (смещение) is

more perfect. S. is more rational and the prosess is of analygising)

3. Embiguity (неопределенность). The image of M and S must be capable from rendering more than one interpretation

Ex. Заплаканная осень, как вдова.

The functions of metaphor and simile:

1. The extand l-ge, to what can not be said in terms of literal m-ng alone (буквально), to express the inexpressible.

2. S and M may serve as a means of clearing m-ng by evoking images, by suggesting analogy, comparing the object or phenomenon with concrete or familiar things. The writer makes his discription clearer and more pictureresque. The writer preserves his emotional attitude to what is being described.

Tride imagery (истертое)

Once created S or M strikes us as new, fresh, expressive is called genuien. But from frequent use they became tride and sometimes turned into dead images.

There is a great number of so-called trditional S, which must be regarded as phraseological units (blind as a fool; to smoke like a chimney; to drink like fish). In these similes the names of animals, natural phenomena, plants are often used as vehicles. Traditioanal S are often employed by writers in the direct speech of char-re to individualize their speech. They don’t convey any shades of quality, but shaw the highest degree of it, the present the kind of exageration (He sat as still as a stone).

Imageloss poetry (проза)

Imagery or figurative l-ge is very sensual but not the only propery of verbal art. In fact, a poem or a story may contain no tropes and be genuine art. Стилистический прием преднамеренной простоты описания посредством слов, употребленный только в прямых значениях, называется тавтологией (Hamingway)

TROUPS OF CONTIGUITY OR METONYMICAL GROUP.

This group includes:

• metonymy

• synechdoche

Metonymy is a trope, in which the name of some object or idea is substituted for another, to which it has some permanent objectivity, existing relations. If any M is essentually a comparison. There is no likeness b/w two components of the M. The substitution is possible because of some logical or essentual relation b/w them.

Ex. Direct had also married money.

In M b/w the object made and the object implied are various and numerous. The most frequent types are:

• the instrument stands for the action

• the doer of the action (Give every man thei eye and few thei voice)

• the symbol is used instead of the notion it symbolises (Коня, коня, венец мой за коня!)

• an article of clothing stands for the person wearing it (Короткая юбка бежала по тропинке)

• the pause stands for the effect or consequense or the other way round (He made his way through the perfume and conversation)

• the creator for his creations, or the works for the creator

• the container for the thing contain (The audience laught)

• the quality for the bearer of this quality, the property to the subject (Miss Marple decided that the bushy eyebrows must be professor Wansted. Who is the mustashe?)

Metonymy – is a genien stylistic deveice, is used to achieve concreteness of description by giving a specific connection with phenomena, the writer crockes graphic, concrete and life-like images, stresses the most important essentual features and reveals certain feelings of his own.

Synechdoche – a type of varient metonymy. It’s a trope, in which a part represents the whole and individual stand for a class, the singular for the plural, an indefinite number for a definite one. So, the relations b/w the two objects in S are quantitative.

Ex. Отсель грозить я буду шведу.

Give us this day our daily bread (Только хлеба просишь)

Due to S the utterance becomes energetic, vivid and a high degree of generalisation is achieved.

The expressive force of metonymy and metaphor.

Metonymy is mostly logical, intellectual, while metaphor is always emotional, sensual. The image in metonymy is created by assosiational logic, while metaphor is illogical or its logic is peculiar, governed by emotions, impressions and represents a pucratistic vision of the world.

Stylistic devices.

Epithet – is a word or phrase used to describe an object disclosing the writer’s individual perception of it, his subjective emotional coloured attitude. It is always suggestive, imaginative, evaluative.

Ex. Whose tearful beam; sun of the sleepless...

1. E. may be metaphorical (it may imply comparison)

Ex. a wooden leg – a wooden face; a steel knife – a steel will...

To the same group of ME we refer compound E-s, the 2^nd element, of which is like

Ex. There was monkeylike liveliness about him.

2. Metonymical E-s are very rare, but very expressive, often they heed a larger context for their realization (Ex. the ex umbrella-man)

3. Very expressive and even striking are the metonymical transfered E-s, in which the property indicated in the object is transfered to it from some other object coexisting with it in the same context.

Ex. He lay on a sleepless pillow. Newly laundried neurse.

The expressive force of E-s may depend not only on figurative m-ng. The adj. may be used in its direct m-ng and be an E., expressing the author’s emotional attitude.

Ex. This misarable poor, the wratched mechanics, the most imparralled distress.

Syntactically. E-s are mostly expressed by attributes. To distinguish b/w attributs and E-s, one should remember: logical attr-s point to the inherent features of the object described, which are generally recognized. They don’t convey the subjective attitude to the object described (blue sky). But sometimes logical attr-s (or any other neutral w-ds) may become E-s under the influence of context, especially if there are connotative w-ds in close neighbourhood.

The influence of a connotative w-d on the neighbouring neutral elements is called irradiation: the neutral w-ds begin to shine with their reflected light.

Ex. Once upon a midnight dreary,

When I pondered weak and weary

The money, she had accepted, was two soft green handsome ten dollar bills.

Most often the E-s are expressed by:

• adj-s

• adv-s

• participles (present and past)

4. Another form of an E is combining a phrase or a whole s-ce into an attribute.

Ex. She had a wide, cool, go-to-hell mouth.

She was in one of her why-did-I-ever-marry-you moods.

Such E-s are called phrase E-s or loose compounds. They help in a rather consise (сжатая) form to express the emotional attitude tawards the object or phenomenon. They are extremely char-c of English. They may be used for humorous or satiric purposes.

Another str-ral type of E, which is peculiar Eng. is called riversed E.

Ex. “A monster of a dog”.

It is based on the illogical synt. relations b/w the modified noun stands in the position of the modifier (“pepper of a man”, “his moon of a face”). The change in the position gives the modified noun high emotional colouring. Such E-s are compressed similes (A very idiot of a cattle).

E-s may be diff-t not only in str-re, but in the manner of application. Most often one w-d or E are used (The fat boy chuckled joyesly)

Sometimes E-s are used in pairs (The Old Year was going to pass gently and calmly away). Sometimes there are pilling of E-s. Such chains of E-s give a many-sided representation of an object or phenomenon.

E-s are usually used in preposions, when used in post-positions they create a special emotional colouring to the utterance (“deep, steady grey eyes”). E-s may become tritted, hakned (избитый) through long and frequent use (“deep feeling, bright smile”). They may stick to the defined w-ds and as such are called fixed or traditional folklor, which is char-sed by such E-s as “golden hair”, “sweet smile”.

There are ability and flexibility of the E, which make it one of the most widely and frequently used stylistic devices.

Personofication – is a troup, in which inanimate objects or abstract ideas are endowed (наделены) with human qualities. It’s gram-ly expressed by the pronouns: thou, he, she, they. Besides pr-ns the marks of P are capital letters. P may take a form of address: objects or ideas are addressed as living persons, sometimes it may be an address to an absent and usually deciesed (dead) person. This type is called Apostrophy.

Ex. Blow, blow, thou, winter wind.

Свет мой зеркальце, скажи!

Functions:

• makes the discription more bynamic

• helps to create the general mood

• serves to present the writer’s vision of the world to reflect his phylosophy

• sometimes it creates the epictone of narration. It makes the abstraction tangable.

Allegory – is an expression of an abstract idea through concrete images.

The simplest example of the A are proverbs. In most of them abstract ideas are made visual, concrete through the application of images. Proverbs are based on metaphors, they imply comparisons (The darkest hour is nearest to the door – самый страшный час).

In metonymycal A-s the basis for the creation is not comparison but some permanent relations. Metonymycal A is often used in fairy-tales and tables, when animals, objects and natural phenomena are endowed with human qualities. Cunning (хитрость) is conveyed through the image of a fox. Another example of MA are the char-ers of methology: the A of hope – ankor, of justice – blind woman, holding scales and sort.

A. come close to Antonomasia (when w-ds denoting abstract notions are used as proper names). Sometimes it is close to personification and may be either a form of metaphor or metonymy. But the dif-ce is that allegory has a definite symbol m-ng. Whole books may be based on allegory (“Animal Farm”, “Guliver’s Travels”).

Antonomasia (перенаименование) – is the use of a proper name instead of a common name and vise versa; the use of a discription, discriptional phrase instead of a proper name. A. is created either metaphorically or metonymycally. A frequent case of A. is the use of a name, of a historical or methological ch-re, to describe some features of a personage or to express the general idea (“He is a Napoleon of the crime” – great criminal)

Metaphorical and metonymycal cases. Proper names in these cases express some quality, which is the leading char-c (Shailock – greedy person). Met. A. is widely used not only in lit-re, it transferes some proper name to an object connected with.

A common noun may be used as a proper name. This type of A. helps to give the first char-n of the personage. It is called descriptive names, taken names (Miss Swindle – надувательство; Herr Gingle – очень разговорчивый).

Very often A. helps to give concrete expression for abstract notions and is blending with allegory (“What cah be prefered than an image of love on his knees before beauty”).

Sometimes the m-ng of a proper name is aquired by a w-d-combination or a whole phrase (“Your missis-what’s-her-name sounds firmly British”).

4) Tropes based on relations

1. Honest deceptions(tropes based on inner qualities) - hyperbole - litotes - irony

2. Tropes based on differences - climax - anticlimax

3. Tropes base on conrast - antithesis - oxymoron

4. Tropes based on equality - synonyms - euphomisms - periphrasis

1. The 3 tropes: hyperbole (the figure of overstatements), litotes (the figure of understatement) and irony are connected in that, that they misprepresent the truth: hyperbole distorts by saying too much, litotes – too little, irony – by saying or implying the opposite of the truth.

Hyperbole – is a trope, in which emphasis is achieved by deliberate exageration, overstatement.

Ex. All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand.

H. differs from mere exageration, from a lie, because it is intended to be understood as an exageration.

Functions:

• intensification of the m-ng

• the emotional colouring of the utterance

• humorous or satirical effect (Alice swims in a pool of her one tears)

Through continuous usage, H. may lose its originality and become triet. Such cases of H. are used in lit-re only in direct speech to show the emotional state of the personage in the moment of speech.

Litotes (plain, simple) – is a trope, in which emphasis is achieved by deliberate understatement. In many cases an affirmation (утверждение) is expressed by denying its contrary.

Ex. He is not fool. Not half bad.

He was a man, take him for all and all, I shall not look upon his like again.

Functions:

• the impression of restrained mooleration

• irony, humour

• helps to express personal feelings.

Irony – is a device, by which the writer expresses a m-ng contradictory to the stated or imployed one. It is the use of a w-d in the m-ng directly oppsite to its usual one. I. may be subtained.

Ex. Our admirable constitution - the pride of nation and envy of the surrounding nations.

I. worka better, when it’s hidden. Sometimes one s-ce will suffy to understand the interaction b/w logical and contextual m-ng, but often a much wider context is needed. I. is more or less subtle or skillful mockery. And its effect often depends on its unexpectedness or seeming lack of logic. I. is often stressed by lofty w-ds.

Ex. His designs were srictly honorable as the sume is: that is to rab a lady of her fortune

by way of marriage.

There are many techniques for achieving ironic effect:

• the writer makes it clear, that the intended m-ng is the oppsiter of a literal one (But Brutos is an honorable one)

• the writer may constract the discrapancy b/w the appearance of the situation and the reality, which underlines it

• the disparity, the discrapancy b/w the style and the subject, b/w the manner and the man

I. varies in subtlety and its range is rather wide. Sometimes it may come close to humour, be gentle and soft. Humour as well as I. causes laughter, but is intended to improve slight imprefections. The object of humpur is a funny incedent or an odd feature of human ch-re, at which we laugh good-naturedly.

Ex. There was never yet a phylosopher, that could indure the toothache patiently.

On the other hand, i. may come close to sarcasm and express some negative emtions: disguast, moligration, irretation. Sarcasm is bilter coustic tarent. It doesn’t contain any hidden m-ng, it is overobvious and always cutty.

Satire employs redicule and is used for the purpose of expressing some moral or social vice (порок).

2. Climax – is a figure in speech, in which a number of ideas or notions are so arranged, that each succeeding one, is more expressive, important or emotional, than the preceding one.

Ex. Many people were injured, wounded, hilled.

I’m sorry. I’m very sorry. I’m terribly sorry.

Such an organization of the utterance creates a gradual intensification of its significance, both logical and emotive and imparts dynamism to the saying.

C. may be:

- qualitative

- quantitative

With quantitative C., it is size or quantity, which increases

Ex. It had been a grey day, a grey summer, a grey summer.

Qualitative C. is the increase in emotional force or significance of the utterance.

Sometimes qualitative C. becomes emotional and logical.

Ex. And she was desparately, wildly in love with Lorance Redy (the increase in

emotional force)

A peculiar variety is represented, when a negative structure undergoes intensification.

Ex. No tree, no shrub, no blode of grass, that was not cold.

Anticlimax (lathos) – is an abrupt toning down, a shift from a lofty tone to a low one. It is often occured through cooccurance of low and high-flown w-ds. Sometimes emotions or logical importanceis accumulated only to be unexpectedly broken. The effect of L. is usually humorous.

Ex. He was unconsiderable – for an afternoon.

Women have a wonderful instinct about things. They can discover every thing except

obvious.

3. Antithesis – is a device, presenting two contrasting ideas in close neighbourhood. In many cases it is expressed with a help of antonyms and parallel constructions.

Ex. It was the best of times. It was the worst of times. It was the age of wisdom. It was

the age of foolishness.

This device is used to create the understanding of the complex nature of some phenomenon. It emphases some contrasting features.

Oxymoron – is a combination of contrasting ideas or notions, of two non-combinating w-ds.

Ex. He had a large capital of debts.

O. may be presented by dif-t patters:

- adj-ve + N: a living grave

- N of N: paradise of our dispair

- V + adv: to cry silently

- simile: gentle as hill

- Sopy was doomed to liberty

- she was ugly in a present way

O. preveals a contradictory features of one and the same phenomenon. It gives a strong evaluation of it. One of its components discloses the adj-vely existing feature, while the other creates the writer’s personal attitude to it.

Ex. parting is such sweet sorrow.

Synonyms (Кузнецов, Скребнев «Стилистика англ.языка»)

Periphrasis (Гальперин)

The Classification Of Tropes:

1. Descriptive tropes a. metaphoric group - metaphor - simile - personification b. metonymic group - metonymy - sinechdoche c. mixed group - allegory - antonomasia - epithet

2. Tropes expressing relations a. relations of identity - synonyms (syntagmatic) - periphrasis (paradigmatic) - euphomisms (paradigmatic) b. relations of contrast - irony (parad-c) - antithesis (synt-c) - oxymoron (synt-c) c. relations of difference - climax - lathos - hyperbole - litotes Pun, zeugma = 1+2

SYNTACTICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS

Let’s agree to accept standart English as a literary standart. In syntax, most regular and current is the common two-member s-ce, containg subject and predicate, and some second elemements as well. The order of w-ds is fixed. The function of the s-ce is consistant with its structure. A declarative s-ce expresses a statement, not a question. Nothing is missing or redundant.

Any kind of deviation from regular standart synt. str-re, aimed at producing a stylistic effect, is a syntactical expressive means. All styl-ly relevant synt. means may be classified into (Кузнецов, Скребнев):

1. The SEM based on the absence of logically necessary elements: ellipses, one-member s-ces, aposiopesis, apokoinou. This group is based on the principle (Мартине) of economy of synt.means (the law of the least effort).

2. The SEM based on the presense of extra elements: repetition, polysyndeton, synt.totology, paranthesis.

These 2 groups are singled out from the view point of qualitative char-cs of the synt.str-re

3. The SEM based on the unusual arrangement of synt.elements: inversion. This group is singled out with regard to the distr-re of the elements.

4. The SEM based on the interplay of the appointing s-ces and phrases: parallel constructions, chiasmus

5. The SEM based on the pecularities of connections/connectives: detachment, parcellation, coordination instead of subordination, gap-s-ce link

6.Synt.str-res with some change in their semantic function (shifts in the semantic m-ng): rhetorical questions, quasi-negative, quasi-interrogative, quasi-imperative statements.

1) The SEM based on the absence of logically necessary elements:

Ellipsis is the deliborate omission of one or more elements in a s-ce (especially, primary parts) for definite stylistic purposes.

Ex. The ride did Ma good. Rested her.

Ellipsis is a common feature of the oral part of speech. It’s a norm for colloquial style

Ex. Glad to see you!

It’s also used in encyclopedic and reference books, in newspapre announcements, telegr.messages, telexes, etc. (“In Chancery”). They are widely used in military commands. In lit-re it’s used in speech char-n, reflecting the natural str-re of life speech (“Understand?”).

E. is a frequent device in represented speech. Functions:

- creates bravity, laconism, dynamism

- It gives prominence and emotional tension to the narration,

- creates a quick tempo,

- creates a sense of immidiacy and local colour

- conveys the mood of the ch-re or narrator

One-member s-ces are s-ces with one synt. centre, expressed by the substantive.

Noun-s-ces possess great expressive potential; because noun, used as a principle part, unites the image of an object and the idea of its real existance. They may be used to present the background of the action. They often open the narration, introducing the reader into the situation.

OMS may be used in static description in exposition (Sunrise.) They may often create a cinematographical effect, where general panorama is followed by blow ups (Ночь. Улица. Фонарь…). Chains of noun-s-ces are often resorted to convey a rapid succession of phenomena to create an impression of movement (Me.). OMS may be used to create represented speech. Sometimes they are a kind of a bridge b/w the author’s narration and the char-er’s thought (“Bliss” by J.Mansfield). OMS are widely used in stage directions, especially in opening remarks serving the same purpose as expositions of novels or stories.

The functions of noun-s-ces:

- their laconic ch-re helps to focus the reader’s attention on what is important

- they help see things, stir our imagination, call visual pictures

- may create application, convey additional m-ng

- highten the emotional tension and reveal the narrator’s attitudeto what’s said

Aposiopesis (breaking-the-narrative, stop short s-ce, pull-up s-ce) is a breaking off in speech, leaving the s-ce unfinished, incomplete, both logically and stylistically.

Ex. You’re going – or else.; It depends, you know.

The reasons that bring about the break in the narrative:

• the resistance to finish the s-ce, unwillingness to proceed for some reasons

• the uncertainty or hesitation as to what should be said

• some strong emotion

• that supposition that what remains to be said is understood from what has been said. It’s marked by suspension mark (...) or many dots.

A. is a typical feature of arol speech and is widely used in represented speech (“Forsyte Saga”)

Functions:

- conveys a great tension (If police come – find me...)

- may express attitude to what is said

- often creates implication

- may land the nar-n certain psycological tension (E.Voe “If everyone at 20 realized that half of his life was to be lived after 40...)

Apokoinou (от общего) is the blending of two s-ces through a common w-d, which has two synt. functions, one for each of the blended s-ces

Ex. It was he told me about it. There was a door led to the kitchen.

The w-d common for both s-ces is often a predicative in the first and subject – in the second. This construction was widely used in Old and Middle English. Nowadays it’s not correct and rarely occurs in the author’s narration. It may occur in poetic or elevated style and then is perceived as an archaic element

Ex. I bring him nens will raise his drooping spirits

Functions:

- helps to char-ze a person through his speech: hurried, careless

- may be percieved as an archaic element

The 1^st group of SEM has one feature in common. The device is to create an effect of bravity, laconism, dynamism.

2)The SEM based on the presense of extra elements in contrast with the 1^st group is based on redundancy

Asyndeton is the connection of s-ces, phrases or w-ds without any conjunctions.

Ex. People sang. People cried. People fought...

Functions:

- helps to make each phrase sound independant and significant

- creates an effect that the enumeration is not completed

- creates a certain rhythmical effect, measured and energetic, retardation

- the absence of conj-n lends an utterense an empertuous note

- may give a rise to dynamic tension

- increases emotional colouring

Repetition. It’s hard to everestimate the significance value and importance of R. in art. It acquires harmony.

R. is the reiteration of some l-ge elements, which serves to emphasize, to acieve a harmonious presentation of ideas

Ex. Alone, alone, all, all alone,

Alone on a white, white sea (Callridge)

R. possesses considerable emotional force. The element repeated attracts the reader’s attention. It emparts additional m-ng (Scroodge went to bed again. And though it over and over and over - shows the durability).

R. may express iconically the durability or repeated action. So, it’s not only a repeated word, which may be repeated, but w-d-combinations, full s-ces, too. The repeated w-ds and s-ces may change their places (“Seam and gusset and band, band and gusset and seam, till over the butters I fall asleep and saw them on in a dream” – Th.Hood)

Traditionally rhetorics distinguishes 2 categories of verbal repetition:

- immediate repetition (come away, come away.)

- intermitant rep-n, when the reapeted iteams are separated by the w-ds

R. is a fundamental device if intensification, of rendering emotions to the narrative

Ex. Oh, my son Epsolop,

My son, my son Epsolop!

Would God I had died for thee

Or Epsolop, my son, my son! (Bible)

Accord. to the position occupied by the repeated unit, we distinguish the foll. types:

- ordinary: no fixed place of the repeated unit

- anaphora – the repetition of the 1^st w-ds of several successful s-ces or phrases

(Sonnet №61): a..., a..., a... .

- epiphora – the repetition of the final w-ds (It’s of ample use in nursary rhymes, ballads

and lumerics. It’s often confused with anticipatory use of personal pronouns)

...a, ...a, ...a:

Ex. Oh, it’s the fine life,

The life of gutter.

She has developed power, this woman – the wife of his (Galsworthy)

- framing: a...a, b...b.

- anadiplosis: ...a, a... .

- chain rep-n: ...a, a...b, b...c, c... .

- morphological rep-n: a morpheme is repeated – humorous effect

Paranthasis – an explanatory or qualifying s-ce, phrase or w-d, which inserted in a longer passage without being gram-ly connected with it. It’s usually marked off by brackets, commas or dashes (And he stirred it with his pain (in vain)). Due to P. the narration is conducted into 2 plains – the succession of events is given and the author’s comments on them.

Functions:

- creates the atmosphere of intimacy, to involve the reader into the act

- makes the speech emotionally coloured, to show the author’s attitude

- creates a humurous effect

Polysyndeton – is the connection of s-ces, phrases or w-ds with any conjunctions.

Ex Red shirts and green shirts and yellow shirts.

Functions:

- creates an atmosphere of bustling activitie (and)

- serves either to stress iqual importance or dif-ce (or)

3)The SEM based on the unusual arrangements of synt.elements:

Inversion. The norm is char-sed by fixed w-d-order. The violation of traditional word-order, which doesn’t utter the denotative m-ng, but gives it an additional emotional or emphatic colouring is called inversion. As a result, a component is placed in an unusual position, acquiring special importance and producing a definite stylistic effect. Due to the I. the displaced element becomes the rheme of the utterance, the most imporatant part of it.

Ex. ... up with which I can’t put

The patterns of I.:

a) predicate is placed before the subject: Came another moment

b) predicative is placed before the subject: Poles apart we were – he and I

c) the object before the predicate and subject: The letter, that had awaited, I kept in my pocket

d) the AM, which usually follows the verb may occupy the innitial place: Angrily I tried to move away

f) the attribute may stand after the verb it modifies:

g) a postpositional element is inverted, often together with the verb: In went the widdle and I took my 2^nd pipe

Functions:

- singles out some important parts

- gives emotional tension

- creates specific melody

- makes the narrative dynamic

- may contribute to a humorous effect

4)The SEM based on the interplay of ajoining s-ces.

Parralel constructions – constructions, formed on identical synt. pattern, closely following one another.

Ex. What we anticipate seldom occurs, what we least expect usually happens

Parallelism introduces balance into the narration, especially when it’s accomponied by lex. repetitions.

It may be complete, when the construction of the 2^nd s-ce fully copies that of the the 1^st.

Ex. The day is cold and dark and dreary

It rains and the wind is never weary

My life is cold and dark and dreary (Longfellow)

It may be partial, when only parts are structurally similar.

There are dif. approaches to the notion of parallelism. J.M.Lofman distinguishes 2 types:

- stresses analogy – binominal, in which one element is learnt through the other

analogues to the first. The parallel elements are not identical, but have common

features and we gudje about the 2^nd part by the properties of the 1^st

Ex. In secret we met

In silence we ....

That heart, should forget

A differnt and more complicated is the 2^nd part. Both parts add to char-n and unders-

tanding of each other and the whole

Ex. Грустен и весел, вхожу, ваятель, в твою мастерскую.

- relation of interdependence

Ex. I kissed thee ear I killed thee

R. Jackobson writes about interparallelism: “In any parallel pattern there must be an element of identity, never extands to mechanical repetition. P. requires some variable features. P. is typical of other aspects: music, dance, architecture, etc. P. may stress either similarity or contrast”. Ex. To err is human

To forgive – divine (A.Pope)

Sometimes it may be combined with climax. In many cases P. is accomponied with the repetition of the individual w-ds, creating anaphora, epiphora, framing, etc.

Functions:

- emphatic f’: helps to stress the common m-ng in PC, and thus, helps understanding

through analogy

- enlarges the effect of styl. device used

- effects the rhithmical organization of the utterance and is used in oratory, in pothetic

or emphatic elements.

Chiasmus – is the riversed element, implying the change of synt. element

Ex. I love my love and my love loves me

In Ch. the central part, the predicate, remains the hinge, around which synt. changes occur. The subject of the 1^st s-ce becomes the object of the 2^nd. Ch.’s often cooperated with repetition Ex. What’s Hecube to him

Or he to Hecube?

That’s he should weep to her (“Hamlet” Shakespeare)

Functions:

- helps to render additional m-ng

- renders special shades of m-ng, exploits semantic changes in the repeated w-ds

- presents basis for paradoxes

- is often used in titles (“The Poetry Of Grammar And the Grammar Of Poetry”)

5) The SEM based on the pecularities of connection and connectives:

Detachment – is a stylistic device, consisting in separating the secondary part from the w-d, to which it refers (logically and gram-ly)

Ex. He went away, misarable.

Secondary parts of the s-ce, generally attributes, adverbials and oppsitions, may be used in isolation, which is marked off graphically by comma, dashes or brackets.

Detached oppsition gives particulars to the general m-ng of the object and attaches special importance to the isolated w-ds

Ex. Detached attribute: The church was a new building – small, cold, dark.

Detached AM: Then we could get married at home – properly (G.Green)

The isolated part often becomes an additional rheme and b/w it and the w-d, it modifies a new relation – the relation of additional predication appears.

Functions:

- breakes the monotony of the nar-n

- gives the greter prominance to the isolated parts

- conveys the emotional attitude and a special melody

Parcellation – is the breaking off of the synt. relations b/w a w-d or a phrase a s-ce. A part of a s-ce is completely isolatedand thus, accentuated. It’s expressed graphically with a full stop. Ex. I have to beg you for money. Daily!

As a result of P., the narration acquires colloquial ch-re. It’s a typical feature of the 1^st-person narration from the char-cal point of view. Any 2^nd part may be parcelated.

Functions:

- create emphasis accentuation of the most important

- gives an immitation of natural life speech

- gives a specific melody tone to the narration

- makes the nar-n compact and dynamic (She went down the steps. Paused. Stopped...)

- when the parcelated phrases have weak or no semantic connections with the

s-ce, the effect may be ironic, comical.

Coordination insted of subordination: conj-ns ‘and’, ‘but’ instead of ‘when’, ‘because’, ‘since’. The semantic relations b/w the two neighbouring s-ces may be expressed in 3 types:

- subordination

- coordination

- asyndetic connection

Coordination and asyndeton are typical for oral speech.

Ex. He came the 2^nd time and saw Danny in the same state nearly senseless (coord-n)

Usually immidiacy, colloquial ch-re, subjective attitude, energy and dynamism are contributed by it. That’s why it’s usually used in the 1^st-person narration.

Gap – s-ce link (Galperin) – the connection of two seemingly ugly unconnected s-ces b/w which there’s a semantis gap (connected with the conjunctions “and” and “but”)

Ex. She and that fellow ought to be the sufferers, and the were in Italy

Function: displays an unexpected coupling of ideas

6)Syntactical structures with some change:

Rhetorical questions present statements in the form of questions. They don’t require any answers, but contain them in themselves

Ex. Do you call this music?

It’s a common device in oratory (Brutan’s and Mark Antonious’s speeches). It’s not an unfrequent device in informal dialogues.

RQ are sometimes called gram. metaphors, because there is an interplay of two structural m-ngs: that of the question and that of the statement (affirmative or negative). Both are realized semaltaniously. There are various things expressed by RQ: from admiration to disguast.

In lit-re, RQ serve dif. purposes, f.ex. emphatical, emotional; sometimes, satyrical or ironic. The form of RQ is often negative.

Functions:

- creates irony

- conveys emotional colouring

Quasi-negative statements.

a)sometimes negative m-ng may be expressed by the use of affirmative s-ces and

phrases containing no negative forms. It’s usually in dialogues (colloquial speech)

Ex. - They’re supposed to find diamonds

- Diamonds – my food! (“Pigmaleon Show”)

b) the use of rhetoric q-ns with affirmative pr-te to imply negative m-ng.

Ex. Did I say a word about the money?

c)The use of isolated subordinate clauses of unreal comparison to create negation

without any negative forms

Ex. As if I ever stoopped thinking of her

d)quasy-neg. exclamatory rhetorative responses may imply negation or denial of the

previous statement.

Ex. I’ve explained, why I did that – Explained! Explained!

Quasi-imperative st-tes. The function of the imperative s-ces may be fullfilled by the use of nouns or noun-phrases (the context is very important here)

Ex. Tea. For two. Out here.

Quasi-interrogative st-tes. Interrogative m-ng may be rendered by a positive statement without the usual inverted word-oder. In this case the s-ce implies the speaker’s assurance of getting the answer he expects or his wish to make the intellocutor talk

Ex.That’s my name. There’s nothing the matter.

All the SEM comprising this group are based on the property of a l-ge unit to do more than one job – to be polyfunctional. Synt. forms are transposed into a sphere, which is not usual for them. They fullfill an uncommon function. It brings about expressiveness and rendering dif. shades of m-ng

Phonetical Expressive Means

They serve to provoke a certain accustic effect, giving prominance to the utterance and rising emotions in the reader. The sounds themselves, though they have no extra-lingual m-ng, possess (or seem to possess) a kind of expressive m-ng. A.Poe procalimed: “The sound must seem an echo to the sense”.

Euphony (многозвучие) – is the coordination b/w the m-ng and the sound to produce an artistic effect, when the sound imagery corresponds to the general mood of the utterance.

E. is based on:

- the prevelance of the vowels, especially diphthongs and long vowels

- sonorants

- voiced consonants (tone prevails over the noise; tone is melody)

Ex. Byron “Twilight”

“Death Of a Hero”, Augustin, the discription of tulips

Thus, we see, that not only separate sounds, but cluster of sounds may be repeated, produce a certain effect (“So all day long the noise of battle role” – the noise of the altilary)

Patterns of sound repetition:

a) assonance: great – fail

b) alliteration: great – grow

c) consonance: sand – hand

d) pararhime: great – greet

f) riversed rhyme: sand – sell

g) rhyme: great – date

Alliteration – is the repetition of the innitional consonants in neighbouring w-ds. It’s been a conventional device of Eng. poetry. It dates back to OE poetry, which was built on it. It was widely used by Eng. writers from the time of Beowulf. Folklor, proverbs, sayings, book titles are often based on it.

Ex. “Last Leaf”, “Pride And Prejudes”, “Silver Spoon”, “Swan Song”...

Functions:

• aims at producing a melodical and emotional effect

• it consolidates the sense of the utterance (integratinf function)

• helps to render special shades of m-ng

• the excessive use of A. may create an ironic effect (She’s got three things that matter in a wife, she told me, - breeding, brain and beauty).

The use of no-innitial consonants in successive stressed syllables may be considered a pattern of alliteration – zero-consonant repetition.

Ex I’m the heir of all the ages

Onomonotopia – is a deliberate use of w-ds, in which sounds immitate natural sounds.

Many linguists and poets ascribe some permanent m-ng to certain sounds: [i,m,n] are suitable for tender poems; [k,t,r]+back vowels convey some agressive m-ng. However, the statement of the sound-symbolists, that certain m-ngs are attached to certain sounds is not always true.

O. is subsidiary to sense; it strengthens the m-ngs expressed in a w-d. O. Is the repetition of sounds, which helps to create a certain effect. O. Is often combined with alliteration.

Essonance – is a repetition of vowel sounds in neighbouring w-ds.

Ex. And the rowen never fleeting is seating, still is seating, still is seating on the palid

bust of... (“Raven” by A.Poe)

The main function of the E. – melodious, rhythmical and intensifying.

Rhythm (Galperin) – is a regular altonation of similar or equal units of speech

The factors that enchance the R. in prose are:

• parallel constructions

• homogenious parts

• sound repetition

• the equal length of s-ces

• polysyndeton

• asyndeton

The greater regularity and balance help to create rhythmical prose. R. is always a periodisity, opposition, flow, movement.

Unit of poetic R.: syllable lies at the basis of meter (jambic – “Мой дядя самых честных правил…”; trocky – stressed::unstressed; anapest; dacktil; amfebrac)

Unit of prosaic R.: synt. str-re (phrase, syntagma, s-ce). Important feature – changability.