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in Ghana, KNUST FP/R1/199, “Research— General”; Enti, “Collection of Botanical
Specimens”; Enti, Rejuvenating Plants.
34. Eric Allman, Head, Pharmacy Department, Kumasi to E. A. Gyang, June 30,
1961; Eric Allman to A. H. Beckett, Chelsea College of Science and Technology,
London, October 31, 1960, in Ghana, KNUST FP/R1/199 “Research— General.”
35. “World Scientists to Study Secrets.”
36. R. B. Baffour, Vice- Chancellor KNUST to Eric Allman, Head, Pharmacy
Department, October 8, 1963, in Ghana, KNUST FP/R1/199, “Research— General.”
37. Allman to Baffour, October 15, 1963, in ibid.
38. Tackie was listed as the second author on articles emanating from his July 1963
PhD from the University of London. For instance, Beckett and Tackie, “Structure of
Rotundifoline”; Beckett and Tackie, “Structures of Alkaloids”; Beckett et al., “Mitragyna
Species of Ghana . . . Pellegr”; Beckett et al., “Mitragyna Species of Ghana . . . Kuntze.”
39. Arnold Beckett, Chelsea, to Editor, Ghanaian Times, September 17, 1963, in
Ghana, KNUST FP/R1/199, “Research— General.”
40. “Ghana Makes Big Medical Discovery.”
41. Ghana, KNUST PD/39, “National Research Council Minutes.”
42. Fosu, Head Teacher, Catholic Middle School, Dwinyama, via Kumasi, note to
scientists of local herb committee, June 23, 1961, in ibid.; emphasis added.
43. S. T. Quansah, Executive Secretary, N.R.C., to J. L. Fosu, head teacher, Catho-
lic Middle School, Dwinyama, June 19, 1961, in ibid.
44. Ghana, GPTHA, “Correspondence, Ghana Psychic and Traditional Healers
Association, Western Region,” 1970– 1977.
45. “Healers Find New Drug.”
46. Prof. A. N. Tackie, Dean Faculty of Pharmacy, to Mr. H. K. Armah, Vice Dis-
trict Chief Farmer, Aiyinasi, December 10, 1964. Armah sent his original offer to sup-
ply information on “medical discovery in herbs” on June 18, 1964, in Ghana, KNUST
FP/R1/199, “Research— General.”
47. Selormey, “Address at the Inauguration of the CSRPM,” in Ghana, KNUST FP/
A7c/vol, “Advisory Committee.”
48. F. G. Torto, Head Chemistry Department, University of Ghana- Legon, to
Dr. Yanney- Wilson, secretary Ghana Academy of Science, March 4, 1964, in Ghana,
KNUST FP/R1/199, “Research— General.”
49. Tackie and Ampofo, “Memorandum,” in Ghana, KNUST FP/A7c/vol, “Advisory
Committee.”
50. Ibid.
51. Selormey, “Inauguration of the CSRPM,” in ibid.
52. J. K. Apeagyei, Reduction Plant, Konogo Goldfi elds– State Gold Mining Corpo-
ration, to Director, CSRPM, November 14, 1973, in ibid.; emphasis added.
53. Boye and Ampofo, “Clinical Uses”; Tackie et al., “Cryptospirolepine.”
54. Boye and Ampofo, “Clinical Uses,” 38.
55. Author interview with Banyan Acquaye Dadson.
56. Ewusi, Po liti cal Economy of Ghana, 18.
57. E. Evans- Anfom, Chairman, National Council for Higher Education, “Minutes
of a Meeting held at the Conference Room of the National Council for Higher Educa-
tion at the State House, at 10
A.M. on Tuesday 27th May, 1975 to Discuss Co- operation
242 Notes to Pages 143–151
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between the Centre for Scientifi c Research into Plant Medicine, Mampong- Akuapem,
and the Universities including the Medical School and the Council for Scientifi c and
Industrial Research,” in Ghana, KNUST FP/A7c/vol, “Advisory Committee.”
58. Author interview with Banyan Acquaye Dadson.
59. E. A. Gyang, Chairman of CSRPM Council, Dean Faculty of Pharmacy,
University of Science and Technology (U.S.T.), in “Minutes of Meeting held between
representatives of [CSRPM] and heads of Departments of the Faculty of Pharmacy,
U.S.T. in the Faculty Common Room on Mon. 24th March, 1975,” in Ghana, KNUST
FP/A7c/vol, “Advisory Committee.”
60. “Memorandum for ¢250,000.00 for Mass Spectrometer, Physiograph and
Automatic Polarimeter for Medicinal Plant Research in Ghana,” to Secretary, National
Redemption Council, 9 April 1975, in ibid.; emphasis added.
61. “CSRPM Minutes . . . Mon. 17th Nov., 1975,” in ibid.
62. “Request for Funds to Purchase Mass Spectrometers for Scientifi c Research
into Plant Medicine,” May 12, 1976, in ibid.
63. Author interview with Albert Nii Tackie.
64. K. Tete- Asiedu, secretary, CSRPM, “National Ser vice,” July 7, 1975, in Ghana,
KNUST FP/A7c/vol, “Advisory Committee.”
65. Boakye- Yiadom and Bamgbose, Proceedings.
66. Ghana, CSRPM, CPM/A/CR/59, “Council meetings— Director’s papers.”
67. Author interview with FrancisTayman; author interview with Archibald Sittie.
68. Ampofo, First Aid in Plant Medicine.
69. Addae- Mensah, Towards a Rational Scientifi c Basis, 33– 36.
70. Author interviews with Albert Tackie.
71. Tackie and Schiff, “Compound and Method.”
72. Author interview with Paul Schiff.
73. These advertisements were observed during conversations with Tackie’s son;
author interview with Reggie Nii Tackie.
74. “Plant Medicine,” in Phyto- Riker Pharmaceuticals Ltd., 4.
75. “Bi- Annual Report.”
76. Ghana, GPTHA, “Correspondence . . . 1963– 1977.”
77. Kilham, Medicine Hunting; author interview with Sylvester Akajah.
78. Biagioli and Galison, Scientifi c Authorship.
79. Soto Laveaga, Jungle Laboratories. Soto Laveaga notes that the national vision
in Mexico depended on research in the United States as well.
Notes to Chapter 5
1. United Kingdom, RBGKEB 107.00 ASCLEPIADACEAE Hoodia gordoni. Appar-
ently, “it was collected in the Karoo by Mr. Lycett of Worcester in 1873 and named
for Sir Henry Barkley who sent an account of it to . . . Kew in the following year.” By
1932, “H. Barkleyi has not been rediscovered,” making the bottled specimen even
more of a novelty in its day. Watt and Breyer- Brandwijk, Medicinal and Poisonous
Plants of Southern Africa, 1086.
2. “Hoodia Slimming Tea Box,” Bija Healing Teas, purchased 2007, author’s
collection.
Notes to Pages 152–166 243
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3. See Coombe, Cultural Life, 174– 177; Vermeylen, “From Life Force to Slim-
ming Aid.”
4. On the extent to which the Hoodia case conforms to the World Trade Or ga-
ni za tion Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property, see Bodeker,
“Traditional Medical Knowledge,” 785– 814. See also Dolder, “Traditional Knowledge
and Patenting”; Moyer- Henry, “Patenting Neem and Hoodia”; “Protecting Traditional
Knowledge.”
5. “South Africa: Feature.”
6. For an overview of competing land law in countries where the San live, see
Munzer and Simon, “Territory, Plants, and Land- Use Rights.”
7. Wiredu, “Our Problem of Knowledge,” 182; Agrawal, “Dismantling the
Divide,” 424.
8. Jim Chen argues that nature, although sacred, nonetheless provides raw data
for industrial applications and should be made widely accessible. Chen, “Webs of
Life,” 589.
9. Wynberg et al., Indigenous Peoples, Consent and Benefi t Sharing. In South Africa,
the primacy of Bushmen to the region has become critical to national narratives
of continuous migration. See Morgan, Representing Bushmen, 6; Bank, Bushmen in a
Victorian World.
10. It is unclear whether both Khoi and San groups used these leaves. See Thun-
berg, Travels in Eu rope, Africa and Asia, 312; van Wyk, “Review of Khoi- San,” 333.
11. On numbers of San, see Hitchcock et al., Updating the San. On Pteronia, see
Hulley et al., “Ethnobotany”; Hulley et al., “Review of Pteronia Species.”
12. Odendaal et al., Richtersveld, 52; Watt and Breyer- Brandwijk, Medicinal and
Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa, 138.
13. Thunberg, Travels in Eu rope, Africa and Asia, 140.
14. Ibid., 171.
15. Use and Misuse, 68.
16. Watt and Breyer- Brandwijk, Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern Africa,
1082.
17. Ibid., 1076– 1078, 1081, 1085.
18. Pappe, Silva capensis, 54– 55. This is the only nineteenth- century reference
cited in Hoodia patents and scientifi c articles, suggesting that CSIR researchers were
not aware of further references I have found. See van Heerden et al., “Appetite Sup-
pressant,” 2546.
19. United Kingdom, RBGKH 147, “ASCLEPIADACEAE Hoodia gordonii.”
20. Vylder, Journal of Gustaf de Vylder, 59. Reference found through a Google
search for “ghaap,” though I have not seen it referred to elsewhere.
21. Watt and Breyer- Brandwijk, Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and
Eastern Africa, 138.
22. “Eve ning Meeting in London,” 389.
23. Ibid., 389– 390.
24. “Story of Our Fire.”
25. Smith, Theories about the Origin, 8; Coombs, South African Plants.
26. On Khoi- Dutch relations, see, for instance, Marks, “Khoisan Re sis tance”;
Mitchell,
Belongings.
244 Notes to Pages 166–172
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27. Marloth, Flora of South Africa, 91; Mathews, “South African Succulents,” 14.
28. van Wyk, “Review of Khoi- San.”
29. Osborn and Noriskin, “Data Regarding Native Diets,” 605– 606.
30. Marloth, Flora of South Africa, 94. Marloth, quoted and referenced as a key in-
sight to Hoodia’s dietary potential in van Wyk, “Review of Khoi- San,” 333. Also cited
in later CSIR patents and publications: van Heerden et al., “Pharmaceutical Composi-
tions”; van Heerden et al., “Appetite Suppressant,” 2546.
31. Marloth, Dictionary of the Common Names, 61, 125.
32. By the 1930s, thousands of herbalists and plant peddlers had sent requests
for licenses, to no avail. One argument is that white doctors sought to snuff out the
competition. See Flint, Healing Traditions.
33. Dubow, Scientifi c Racism, 20– 65; Gordon, Bushman Myth.
34. Maingard, “Some Notes on Health and Disease,” 227.
35. Ibid., 235.
36. Ibid., 232.
37. Tobias, “15 Years of Study,” 74.
38. South Africa, SANA, NTS 7756/26/335n “Grahamstown.”
39. Bousman, “Coping with Risk.”
40. For an excellent overview of Bushmen history in Namibia and surrounding
countries, including atrocities, see Gordon, Bushman Myth, 77– 85.
41. “Bossieman” may have been shortened to “boseman” and “bushman” in
En glish: van Wyk, “Review of Khoi- San,” 333. See also Gordon, Bushman Myth, 4– 7;
Hitchcock et al., Updating the San.
42. Maingard, “Introduction,” 234.
43. Gordon, Bushman Myth; Scott, Art of Not Being Governed, 394. For an overview
of ge ne tic debates, see Morris, “Myth of the East African ‘Bushmen.’ ” On the debate
about the historical isolation of the San, see, for example Hitchcock et al., Updating
the San; Solway et al., “Foragers, Genuine or Spurious?”
44. Thomas, Old Way, 51; Thomas, “Lion/Bushman Relationship.”
45. Brief overviews of phytochemical research in South Africa are found in
Hutchings, “Survey and Analysis,” 111; Fox and Young, Food from the Veld, 13– 17.
46. “South Africa Crops Ruined”; “Storm Ends African Drought”; Osborn and
Noriskin, “Data Regarding Native Diets,” 605. See also Levy et al., “Food Value”; Fox
and Back, “Preliminary Survey.”
47. Levy et al., “Food Value,” 699.
48. Osborn and Noriskin, “Data Regarding Native Diets,” 605– 606.
49. Ibid., 606– 608.
50. Fox and Back, “Preliminary Survey,” 13.
51. Ibid., 321; Levy et al., “Food Value.” For further analysis of the “Dressed
Native” concept in mining research and research on greens, see Packard, White
Plague, Black Labor.
52. Kepe, “Social Dynamics.”
53. Levy et al., “Food Value,” 699.
54. For more on Fox and nutrition research in South Africa, see Wylie, Starving on
a Full Stomach, 141– 159.
55. United States, PMAH, “Diaries and Logs of Lorna and Laurence Marshall.”
Notes to Pages 173–180 245
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56. Shopping receipt No. 2973 for Mr. L. K. Marshall, August 8, 1956, in United
States, PMAH, “Letters, Ephemera.”
57. Robert Story, Division of Botany, Department of Agriculture, Pretoria,
to L. K. Marshall, March 22, 1957, in United States, PMAH, “Southwest Africa
Expedition.”
58. Paul C. Mangelsdorf, Botanical Museum of Harvard University, to J. O. Brew,
Director, Peabody Museum, April 1957, in United States, PMAH, “Southwest Africa
Expedition.”
60. Richard B. Lee papers in United States, PMAH, “Rec ords of the Harvard-
Smithsonian Expedition.”
61. Lee, “What Hunters Do,” 37.
62. Ibid., 53– 55. On Lee’s infl uential concept of an “affl uent society,” see Sahlins,
Stone Age Economics.
63. Tanaka, “Subsistence Ecol ogy,” 107; Fox and Young, Food from the Veld.
64. United States, PMAH, Richard Borshay Lee Field Notes; Lee, “Eating
Christmas.”
65. Hansen et al., “Hunter- Gatherer to Pastoral Way,” 559.
66. Jenkins et al., “Transition “ 410.
67. Kingwill, CSIR.
68. Pretorius and Wehmeyer, “Assessment of Nutritive Value”; Pretorius et al.,
“Magnesium Balance Studies”; Theron et al., “State of Pyridoxine Nutrition”; Theron
et al., “Histochemical Investigation”; Abramson et al., “Diet and Health.”
69. CSIR, “Bremer Bread.” For more on nutrition outreach programs in the 1950s,
see also Packard, White Plague, Black Labor, 266– 272; Wylie, Starving on a Full Stomach.
70. Wehmeyer and Rose, “Important Indigenous Plants,” 615.
71. Wehmeyer, “Edible Wild Plants,” 2.
72. Ibid., 3.
73. Strydom and Wehmeyer, “Preparation of Edible Wild Fruit”; Wehmeyer,
“ Edible Wild Plants.”
74. “CSIR Twenty- Fourth Annual Report,” 47.
75. Wehmeyer, “Edible Wild Plants.”
76. Arnold et al., “Khoisan Food Plants.”
77. Wehmeyer et al., “Nutrient Composition,” 1530.
78. Wehmeyer, “Edible Wild Plants,” 4– 6; Kingwill, CSIR, 210.
79. Kingwill, CSIR, 198.
80. “CSIR Twenty- Second Annual Report,” 586.
81. “CSIR Twenty- Third Annual Report,” 51.
82. “CSIRTwenty- Eighth Annual Report 1972,” 5.
83. “CSIR Annual Report 1975,” 12.
84. “CSIR Annual Report 1983.”
85. Retrospective accounts insist that CSIR methodology depended solely on
“journal articles and books” that scientists “used to collect information on Hoodia
gordonii and related species”: van Heerden, “Hoodia gordonii,” 434.
86. Author interview with Vinesh Maharaj; Watt and Breyer- Brandwijk, Medicinal
and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa.
246 Notes to Pages 180–187
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87. van Heerden et al., “Appetite Suppressant,” 2551.
88. van Heerden et al., “Pharmaceutical Compositions”; van Heerden et al., “Ap-
petite Suppressant.”
89. van Heerden et al., “Pharmaceutical Compositions.”
90. “CSIR Annual Report (2005– 06),” 99.
91. Author interview with Vinesh Maharaj.
92. Kahn, “South Africa: Unilever Dumps Plans.”
93. Ibid.
94. Stahl, “African Plant”; “Can a Generation of Potent but Safe Diet Pills.”
95. Author interview with Vinesh Maharaj.
96. Lee and Balick, “Indigenous Use of Hoodia gordonii.”
97. Pereira et al., “Hoodia Gordonii,” 2311.
98. “Phytopharm Falls 43%.”
99. Ibid.
100. Makoni, “San People’s Cactus Drug.”
101. Rubin et al., “Extracts, Compounds and Pharmaceutical Compositions”;
Ismaili et al., “Pro cesses for Production.”
102. “Hoodia Gordonii Weight Loss Pills.”
103. Dentlinger, “Namibian Government”; “South Africa: Feature”; Stahl, “Afri-
can Plant.”
104. Desai, Bushman’s Secret.
105. “South Africa: Feature.”
106. Kahn, “South Africa: Unilever Dumps Plans.”
107. van Heerden, “Hoodia Gordonii,” 437; emphasis added.
108. Milton and Dean, Karoo Veld, 16– 17. See for instance: Stahl, “African Plant”;
Dentlinger, “Namibian Government”; Foley and Mesure, “Unilever Enlists Kalahari
Bushmen”; “Safe Diet Pills”; “Stoneage Plant.”
109. Munzer and Simon, “Territory, Plants, and Land- Use Rights,” 875.
110. Comaroff and Comaroff, Ethnicity, Inc., 86– 116.
111. Hardin, “Concessionary Politics.”
112. Chennells, “Toward Global Justice.” See also Wynberg and Chennells;
“Green Diamonds”; Chennells, “Vulnerability and Indigenous Communities.”
113. Crouch et al., “South Africa’s Bioprospecting,” 357.
114. “National Environmental Management,” 68.
115. Ferreira, “Red Tape.”
116. Sherry, “Permission to Sip.”
117. Author interview with Tshidi Moroka.
118. Crouch et al., “South Africa’s Bioprospecting,” 357.
119. Early optimism included: van den Daele, “Does the Category of Justice”;
Odendaal et al., Richtersveld, 52. However, Pfi zer and then Unilever abandoned licens-
ing agreements based on Hoodia patents. See Kahn, “South Africa: Unilever Dumps
Plans.”
120. Kahn, “Firm Hopes to Take ‘San Prozac.’ ”
121. Marshall and Marshall, Bitter Melons; United States, PMAH, “Journal of Eliza-
beth Marshall Thomas.”
Notes to Pages 188–197 247
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Notes to Conclusion
1. Mputhia, “State Needs to Enforce Laws”; “Environmental Management and
Co- ordination Act”; “National Environmental Management”; “Constitution of
Kenya.”
2. For an insightful overview of the global shift in management of plant ge ne-
tic resources from an open to closed framework, see Raustiala and Victor, “Regime
Complex,” 278.
3. Basalla, “Spread of Western Science”; Grewal, Network Power.
4. Jasanoff, “Heaven and Earth,” 41. A God’s-eye view has been furthered
through satellite mapping of ge ne tic resources; see Mooney, “Africa.”
5. “Nagoya Protocol on Access,” 9.
6. On early regional alliances to monitor biodiversity prospecting, see, for
instance, Grajal, “Biodiversity and the Nation State,” 6; Coombe, “Intellectual Prop-
erty,” 104.
7. For example, see Cerminara, “Class Action Suit”; Barnett, “Equitable Trusts”;
Hillebrand and Torrence, “Claims Procedures.” Alternatives to direct benefi ts include
social responsibility programs to limit potential confl icts; see Heal, “Corporate Social
Responsibility.”
8. Moran, “Rural Space as Intellectual Property,” 266.
9. Bérand and Marchenay, “Tradition, Regulation and Intellectual Property.” In
his depiction of neo- Europes, Alfred E. Crosby wrongly asserts that those of African
descent live only on three continents; Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, 1, 2.
10. Boateng, Copyright Thing Doesn’t Work Here; Sautier et al., “Geo graph i cal Indi-
cations”; Teuber, “Geo graph i cal Indications of Origin.”
11. Raustiala and Munzer, “Global Struggle.”
12. Grasseni, “Packaging Skills.”
13. Addae- Mensah, “Plant Biodiversity,” 171.
14. Mooney, “Africa.”
15. Sociologist Ruha Benjamin recognizes a similar paradox in the quest for
“genomic sovereignty” in the race to map population genomes in India and Mexico:
Benjamin, “A Lab of Their Own.”
248 Notes to Pages 201–212
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249
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