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improve frailty status in those at risk of, or following, fragility fractures (Box 3.3):
(1) exercise (aerobic and resistance), (2) calorie and protein supplementation, (3)
vitamin D supplementation, and (4) reduction of polypharmacy [9, 17, 34] (Box 3.5).
• Planned exercise can develop muscle strength and improve physical performance
and functionality [36] as well as decrease depression and fear of falling [9]. A
mix of specically prescribed aerobic and resistance exercises improves frailty
and is effective in preventing its adverse outcomes [37, 38]. One systematic
review found that an exercise programme, continued three times a week for
30–45min per session for approximately 5months, had positive impact [39].
• In frail older people with signicant weight loss, it is essential to identify the
cause (Chap. 8). Dietary caloric supplementation has been shown to be successful in achieving weight gain and reducing complications in malnourished individuals [40]. Protein supplementation of 15 g of protein twice a day over
24weeks improves muscle strength and physical performance [41], while oral
nutritional supplements provide additional protein and calories.
• Vitamin D supplementation can play a role in preventing or treating frailty by
enhancing balance and maintaining muscle strength [42] but, while this is likely
to be benecial for frail older people, there have been no large-scale studies that
have conrmed this to be the case on its own [9].
• Undertaking a medication review and considering side effects, interactions, and
consequences for frailty are essential. Medication review and reduction of polypharmacy have also been advocated as an option for improving outcomes, especially in reducing mortality, hospital admissions, and falls [43].
These four interventions should be considered following frailty assessment so
that they can be individually tailored to target specic identied problems and needs
through an interdisciplinary approach [44].
As well as these interventions, it is essential that the clinical team work collab-
oratively with the patient and their family to understand their degree of frailty and
how it has contributed to their current health status. It is equally important for the
patient to understand that frailty is reversible and that working towards a greater
degree of well-being is likely to both improve the outcomes from the current health
event as well as help to prevent further fractures. Patients also need to be able to
believe in their own inuence over their future health, and the health-promoting role
of the clinical team is essential in achieving this. It is vital that these messages are
relayed to the patient and their family from the beginning of their hospital stay and
throughout the pathway to rehabilitation and beyond.
Box 3.5 Interventions for frailty
• Exercise (aerobic and resistance)
• Caloric and protein supplementation
• Vitamin D supplementation
• Reduction of polypharmacy
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3.6 Sarcopenia
Frailty and sarcopenia are linked, while frailty is a geriatric syndrome, sarcopenia is
a disease. Sarcopenia contributes to the development of physical frailty and physical
decline so is an important consideration in the care and management of patients
with fragility fractures. Sarcopenia is a muscle disease rooted in adverse muscle
changes that accrue across a lifetime, which can be viewed as ‘muscle failure’. With
the continued increase in the older global population, sarcopenia has become a serious international public health problem. It can occur at any age but is most common
among older adults.
Sarcopenia is characterised by low levels of muscle strength, muscle quantity/
quality, and physical performance. It is a ‘progressive and generalised skeletal mus-
cle disorder that is associated with increased likelihood of adverse outcomes including falls, fractures, physical disability and mortality’ ([45] p.18).
The overall prevalence of sarcopenia is reported to be 10% [46], but it is more
common in women than men [4] (Martin and Ranhoff 2021). Changes in body composition occur with normal physiological ageing [47]. Body weight usually increases
during adulthood and peaks at the age of 65years in women and 54years in men
[48]. In later life, muscle mass is lost at a rate of approximately 8% per decade
between the ages of 50 and 70years. After the age of 70years, weight loss is coupled with an accelerated loss of muscle mass, reaching a rate of 15% in each decade
[48]. In addition to this age-related decline in muscle mass, important factors in
progression of loss include [4]:
1. Declining physical activity
2. Reduced food intake
3. Chronic health conditions and acute illness
The presence of these factors provides important indicators for the management
and prevention of sarcopenia.
Sarcopenia is a powerful predictor of disability that is associated with age-related
loss of muscle mass and strength which, in turn, affects balance, gait, and overall
ability to perform tasks of daily living [49, 50]. The risk of disability is 1.5–4.6
times higher in older people with sarcopenia than in those with normal muscle.
These common age-related changes in skeletal muscle are major causes of impaired
physical function in older adults, contributing to impaired mobility, falls, and
hospitalisation.
The causes of sarcopenia are multifactorial and can include muscle disuse,
changing endocrine function, chronic diseases, inammation, insulin resistance,
and nutritional deciencies [51]. Reductions in testosterone and oestrogen that
accompany ageing appear to accelerate its development [52]. It has also become
apparent that the Covid-19 pandemic has led to an increase in the incidence of sarcopenia because of both the physiological impact of the virus itself and the impact
on social activity in older people whose physical and social activity, particularly
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outside of the home, has been limited by lockdown restrictions and fear, leading to
deconditioning [51, 52].
3.6.1 Screening andAssessment forSarcopenia
Since sarcopenia, frailty, osteoporosis, and fragility fracture are linked [4], identifying sarcopenia in those with or at risk of fragility fracture is central in both fracture
prevention and recovery/rehabilitation following fractures. An interdisciplinary
approach to management of sarcopenia begins with diagnosis so that the team can
plan care accordingly.
Sarcopenia, like many other health conditions, is asymptomatic in its initial
stages, when interventions can best prevent the adverse health outcomes [53].
Screening tends not to be a routine aspect of clinical practice, partly because of the
lack of appropriate screening strategies [54].
Several expert groups have convened with the goal of establishing a consensus
about diagnostic criteria for sarcopenia [45, 55–58]. In 2010, the European Working
Group on Sarcopenia in Older People (EWGSOP) published a sarcopenia denition
[44, 56] that aimed to foster advances in identifying and caring for people with sarcopenia. The group met again (EWGSOP2) in 2019 to update the original denition
to reect progress over the previous decade [45], identifying three criteria for the
diagnosis of sarcopenia. Common tests used in the diagnosis of sarcopenia are outlined in Box 3.6.
Box 3.6 Common tests for the diagnosis of sarcopenia [45, 56]
1. Low muscle strength is the primary parameter of sarcopenia and the most
reliable measure of muscle function.
Measuring grip strength is simple and inexpensive using a calibrated
handheld dynamometer.
The chair stand test (or chair rise test) can be used to assess the strength
of leg muscles (quadriceps muscle group). This measures the amount of
time needed for a person to rise ve times from a seated position without using their arms.
2. Low muscle quantity or quality conrms the presence of sarcopenia.
3. Low physical performance
Physical performance can be measured by gait speed and the timed-up
and go test (TUG), among other tests.
• Probable sarcopenia is identied by criterion 1
• Diagnosis is conrmed by criterion 2
• If all three criteria are met, sarcopenia is considered to be severe.
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The screening tests outlined above are important aspects of fracture prevention
and are central to CGA as well as frailty assessment. In orthogeriatric care settings,
screening and assessment are best done through an interdisciplinary approach, with
specic collaboration needed among physiotherapists, geriatricians/physicians, and
the nursing team. An important consideration in assessing muscle strength, quality,
quantity, and physical performance is that the person with a signicant new fragility
fracture affecting physical function will be unable to perform the test. Hence, taking
a history of their functional abilities prior to the fracture will be important instead.
Physical performance measures may also be affected by issues such as memory
loss, or gait and/or balance problems.
A. Marques et al.
3.6.2 The Clinical Consequences ofSarcopenia
Osteoporosis predicts the future risk of fracture, and sarcopenia is a powerful predictor of future disability [47] alongside frailty. Reduced muscle mass and strength
are also associated with lower bone mineral density [59, 60], consistent with the
‘mechanostat’ theory of bone loss due to reduced forces of muscle on bone [61].
Sarcopenia also contributes to falls and, consequently, increases fracture risk [62,
63]. There is signicant evidence that low muscle mass and strength are associated
with fractures [63]. Several studies have conrmed associations between low muscle mass, future functional decline, and physical disability [2]. Physical inactivity or
decreased physical activity is part of the underlying mechanisms of sarcopenia, so
physical activity is important in reversing or modifying it, especially given the
impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on outdoor activity in older people in many
communities.
Several interventions have been proposed for the treatment of loss of muscle and
strength, but exercise is central. Sarcopenia has also been linked to higher hospitalisation rates, increased morbidity, and mortality [64, 65]. Sarcopenia may also be
associated with metabolic and cardiovascular diseases such as diabetes, dyslipidaemia, and hypertension.
3.6.3 Interventions toPrevent Sarcopenia
It is better to prevent progressive loss of skeletal muscle mass, strength, and function rather than try to restore it later, so preventive strategies should be initiated
early, before loss of skeletal muscle mass and strength occurs. These are particularly
important considerations in primary and secondary fragility fracture prevention services (see Chap. 5).
Since important causes of depleted muscle mass are declining activity, depleted
nutrition, and acute and chronic health conditions, these are central factors in preventing and managing sarcopenia. These issues are frequently discussed throughout
this book and are central to both frailty management and orthogeriatric care.
Interventions for this are discussed earlier in this chapter in relation to frailty.
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Exercise is considered in more detail in Chap. 8 and nutrition in Chap. 11. A brief
overview of these main interventions for sarcopenia will be provided here, however,
for the sake of completeness.
Exercise interventions have the most signicant potential to improve sarcopenia.
The benets of physical activity in older people include lower mortality and better
functional independence (Chap. 6). There are four specic categories of recommended exercise: (1) aerobic exercise, (2) progressive resistance exercise, (3) exibility exercise, and (4) balance training [3]. See Chap. 8.
Nutrition is also important in preventing and reversing sarcopenia. Increasing
age is associated with reduced appetite and early satiety, resulting in many older
people failing to meet the recommended daily dietary allowance (RDA) for protein,
which has important implications for skeletal muscles [66]. Older adults will require
higher dietary protein (up to 1.2g/kg/day) to counteract age-related changes in protein metabolism and higher catabolic state associated with chronic or acute diseases
[67]. See Chap. 11.
It is the combination of exercise and nutrition interventions that are key to pre-
venting, treating, and slowing down the progression of sarcopenia [66].
Pharmaceutical agents are under investigation but with no current proven benet
with inadequate evidence to support their use. Low serum vitamin D levels are associated with reduced muscle strength, and it has also been demonstrated that a doseresponse relationship exists between serum levels and muscle health. If serum levels
are low, vitamin D should be replaced with replenishment dosages ranging from
700 to 1000IU/day [68].
Implementing interventions for frailty and sarcopenia has several challenges and
barriers. One systematic review demonstrated that older people believe that exercise
is unnecessary or, even, potentially harmful [69]. Others recognise the benets of
exercise but report a range of barriers to participation in exercise interventions.
Raising awareness is important to enhance exercise participation among older people and to prevent sarcopenia.
Another barrier that needs to be considered in planning long-term strategies to
prevent and treat sarcopenia in older people is the nancial ability to attend exercise
programmes [44]. Factors such as access to food, nances, and social isolation may
all impact an older person’s ability to obtain optimal food intake.
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3.7 Conclusion
Both frailty and sarcopenia are linked with falls and fragility fractures, although
they are concepts relatively new to nurses and other health professionals working in
clinical settings outside of dedicated geriatric/elder care units. Being able to identify frailty and sarcopenia and plan and implement interventions for their modication are important skills for all members of the interdisciplinary team. Managing
these conditions and their associated effects will be central to improving recovery
and outcomes following fragility fracture.
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3.8 Suggested Further Study
• Review reading materials, information, and online programmes relating to the
impact of ageing on older people and consider how frailty and sarcopenia are
part of this picture. See for example:
Websites:
Aging in Motion https://www.aginginmotion.org/
Books:
Martin FC, Ranhoff AH.Frailty and Sarcopenia (2021) In: Falaschi P, Marsh D,
editors. Orthogeriatrics: The Management of Older Patients with Fragility Fractures
2nd edition. Springer; Chapter 4. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-48126-1_4 Available
from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK565582/
McSherry, W.Rykkje, L.Thornton, S. (Eds) (2021) Understanding Ageing for
Nurses and Therapists. Springer Nature Switzerland AG. https://doi.
org/10.1007/978- 3- 030- 40075- 0
Journal articles:
Cruz-Jentoft AJ, et al. Writing Group for the European Working Group on
Sarcopenia in Older People 2 (EWGSOP2), and the Extended Group for EWGSOP2.
(2019) Sarcopenia: revised European consensus on denition and diagnosis. Age
Ageing. 48(1):16–31. doi: 10.1093/ageing/afy169. 06. Available from: https://www.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6322506/pdf/afy169.pdf
• Talk with patients, carers, and other staff about the things they feel that lead to
and prevent frailty and sarcopenia. Reect on what these conversations suggest
about how practice might be developed to improve mobility outcomes by involving patients.
3.9 How toSelf-Assess Learning
• Discuss what you have learned about frailty and sarcopenia with other team
members.
• Consider a patient you recently provided care for who you recognise as being
frail or having sarcopenia or both. Make some notes about how your understanding of these issues has improved since reading this chapter. Discuss with your
clinical colleagues how the care of the patient could have been improved in light
of this learning.
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