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Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5382_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
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O
18
F
F
FN
F
F
R
H
18
O
O
N
O
O
18
F
O
O
F
F
18
O
O
N H
N
O
8.5.2.3 Aryliodonium Salts
Extending functional group tolerance to include precursors not amenable to SNAr has been a focus of dierent research groups[116, 117]. To this end, diaryliodonium salts have been investigated heavily in the past 20 years, as these species can be employed for direct aromatic radiouorination. Diaryliodonium salts are typically designed with an unreactive aryl auxiliary, and selectivity is generally observed for the most electron-decient aryl substituent. However, regioselectivity issues can be encountered, and the auxiliary ring of electron-rich meta -substituted substrates can inadvertently uorinate, decreasing the reaction eciency[116, 118]. To overcome this, a method using (2-thienyl)aryliodonium salts has been reported (Scheme8.10)[116]. In this study, electron-rich aryl moieties were radiouorinated selectively when the corresponding diaryliodonium precursor contained an electron-rich 2-thienyl group, and this selectivity had previously been unattainable. However, the true reaction selectivity can be dicult to determine accurately due to the volatility of 2-uorothiophene. In general, o - and p- substituted substrates can display good reactivity toward radiouorination, while the functionalization of meta-substituted substrates is generally low yielding[119]. Electron-decient substrates can be slow to radiouorinate, although increased yields can be observed if a microreactor is used[118]. Issues of selectivity in unsymmetrical diaryliodonium salts are inuenced by steric con­gestion around the iodine center, which has been termed the “ortho-eect”[119–123].
Figure 8.3 Exam-
ples of prosthetic groups prepared
through S
Ar.
N
I
S
K[18F]F, K
2.2.2
R
18
Scheme 8.10 [18F]
F
Fluorination of
2-thienyl iodo­nium salts.
Recently, a CMRF method was developed to overcome the electronic bias of diaryli­odonium salts to favor the less-sterically congested product[124]. Unlike the metal-free iodonium methods, this procedure gave high conversions with electron-rich substrates. Diaryliodonium salts have had success in clinical applications to synthesize a number of PET radiotracers (Figure8.4) including [
18
[
F]4F-MHPG[128, 129], [18F]UCB-H[130], [18F]FIMX[131], an aβ plaque imaging
18
F]uorodopamine[125, 126], [18F]F-DOPA[127],
probe[132], and a novel potent MMP2/MMP9 inhibitor[133]. Furthermore, the radio­labeling of various synthons from diaryliodonium salts has been explored as a way to enhance the scope of structurally complex available PET radiotracers[134]. Despite these advantages, synthetic limitations such as precursor and reaction sensitivity to air/mois­ture and functional group tolerance can limit the application of diaryliodonium salts in
Chapter 08: Fluorine-18 Radiochemistry 265
HO
HO
18
O
NHMe
[18F]MMP2/MMP9 Inhibitor
R
O
OMe
OMe
[18F]FPEB [18F]FDPA [18F]DAA1106
F
18
[F]Fluorodopamine
NH
2
HO
HO
NH
18
F
[18F]F-DOPA
OH
2
HO
18
F
[18F]4F-MHPG
H
NH
N
NH
2
18
F
N
S
Aβ Plaque Imaging Probe
O
F
N
18
F
MeHN
Me
O
N
N
S
F
F
[18F]UCB-H
N
N
N
[18F]FIMX
18
F
Figure 8.4 Radiotracers synthesized from diaryliodonium salts.
radiouorination. In particular, diaryliodonium salts are known to be photosensitive[135] and can undergo side reactions that involve the formation of iodine radicals.
Most diaryliodonium salts are made from (diacetoxyiodo)arenes[136], and the direct radiolabeling of these intermediates with [ precursor instability and broaden the scope of methodology available to the chemist[137].
Alternatively, iodonium salts can be prepared in situ prior to a radiouorination to avoid handling issues[138]. Furthermore, some limitations of diaryliodonium salts were addressed by using iodonium salts with auxiliaries other than sacricial arenes (Scheme8.11)[81, 139]. For example, optimization studies by the Liang laboratory revealed that a ve-mem­bered spirocyclic iodonium ylide auxiliary can aord radiouorinated arenes in excellent yields[140]. Additives such as organocatalyts to drive the radiouorination have also been investigated[141], and spirocyclic iodonium ylides have been used to synthesize several PET radiotracers[139, 142] such as [
18
([
F]FPEB)[143–145], [18F]-N,N-diethyl-2-[4-(2-uoroethoxy)phenyl]-5,7-dimethylpyrazolo[1,5­a]pyrimidine-3-acetamide ([ 2-phenoxyphenyl)acetamide ([
18
F]-3-uoro-5-[(pyridin-3-yl)ethynyl]benzonitrile
18
F]FDPA)[146], and N-(2,5-dimethoxybenzyl)-N-(5-[18F]-uoro-
18
F]DAA1106)[147] (Scheme8.11).
18
F
18
F]uoride has been investigated to address
H N
O
H N
S
O
O
OH
O
18
F radio-
NH
Scheme 8.11
Radiotracers syn­thesized from
I
O
O
O
spirocyclic iodo-
Me
Me
N
N
N
O
NEt
nium ylides.
N
18
F
CN
266 Handbook of Radiopharmaceuticals
18
[
2
F]F
18
F
18
F
R
Me
O
18
F
N
O
For some electron-rich precursors, reaction products consistent with an aryne mecha-
Me
TsHN
]
130 °C, 20 min
nism compete with the desired product[148].
8.5.2.4 Phenols andAnilines
The radiouorination of phenols and anilines using tert-butyl as a leaving group has also been investigated[149, 150]. This method allows for p-[
18
and p-[
F]uoroanilines (Scheme8.12b) with some structural diversity. The substrate scope is limited to arenes bearing two mutually para-substituents, and the harshly oxidizing conditions conferred by phenyliodonium diacetate (PIDA) limits the functional group tolerance of this approach. While milder conditions have been developed for the synthesis of p-[ S
Ar radiouorination[151, 152]. Furthermore, Ritter and co-workers have developed
N
18
F]uorophenol, they require two additional steps following the initial
a direct radiouorination of electron-decient phenols using PhenoFluor and related reagents, which was proposed to proceed through a concerted nucleophilic aromatic substitution (CS
Ar) mechanism (Scheme8.12c)[125].
N
18
F]uorophenols (Scheme8.12a)
Me
OH
Me Me
Me Me
(i) PIDA, TFA,[18F]TBAF, rt, 10 min
(ii) TFA, rt, 10 mi
(i) PIDA, TFA or HF-pyridine, [18F]TEAF
Ar
(i)
DCM, rt, 15 min
(ii) TFA, 10 min
N
Cl
Ar
N
Ag2CO3, CHCl3, 60 °C
Cl
(ii) 18F , butanone:EtOH
R
HO
TsHN
18
R
R
HO
R
 
18

Since 2000, several new methodologies have been developed to install C(sp2)–18F bonds. A common class of methodology development includes the use of a transition-metal. Initially, attempts were made to adapt the Pd-mediated uorination of aryl triates reported by Buchwald[153, 154]. [ required carrier-added uoride to obtain meaningful RCYs (Scheme8.13a)[155]. A study by Ritter in 2011 described a Pd metal-mediated radiouorination reaction[132]. In this report, a Pd complex was treated
18
with [
F]uoride to generate a Pd-18F complex, which could in turn react with another Pd
complex to give the desired labeled product.

18
F]Radiouorination of aryl triates was realized but
II
/PdIV catalytic cycle (Scheme8.13b) that could promote a
18
F
Scheme 8.12
[a]
Radiouorina­tion of phenols
and anilines.
18
F
[b
F
[c]
Chapter 08: Fluorine-18 Radiochemistry 267
[a]
[b]
[c]
[d]
Ad
[18F]-Bavarostat
Scheme 8.13
Transition metal-
mediated radiou­orination of arenes.
N Me
OTf
R
carrier added [18F]CsF [Pd], phosphine ligand
18
F
N
N
Pd
N
N
N
N
B
N
N
R
N
[Pd]
R
Acetone, 85 °C, 10 min
R
18
F
18
F
MeO OMe
NN
I
[Ni]
R
OH
OMe
Aqueous[18F]F , 18-crown-6
MeCN, 23 °C, <1 min
(i) [Ru], EtOH, 85 °C, 30 min (ii) CIIM, MeCN/DMSO, [18F]F
(iii) NH2OH, NaOH, THF/MeOH
O
2OTf
R
Ad N
Me
18
F
18
F
OMe
O
The active Pd-18F complex was generated from nucleophilic [18F]uoride but conferred
umpolung reactivity since it behaved as an electrophilic source of uorine[156]. Later,
18
the Pd-
F uorination methodology was applied to synthesize known PET radiotracers on a clinical scale[157]. Further improvements were subsequently implemented, including the use of an aryl-Ni complex with aqueous [ need to synthesize a M-
18
reaction, simplifying the overall procedure (Scheme8.13c)[159, 160]. Building on this work, the Ritter laboratory has also reported a Ru-mediated deoxyuorination, which was later used to synthesize [ (Scheme8.13d)[161, 162]. Owing to their specialized nature, the adoption of these methods for the clinical production of PET radiotracers has been somewhat slow to date.
Of the new transition-metal-promoted uorination methods, CMRF has emerged as an operationally simple and powerful labeling technique that has been widely used by the PET radiochemistry community. Originally introduced by Sanford in 2013 for uorination
268 Handbook of Radiopharmaceuticals
18
F]uoride[158]. This update avoided the
F complex alongside a M-aryl complex during the course of the
18
F]bavarostat for non-human primate animal studies
of aryl iodonium salts, stannanes, and organoborons[163, 164], Sanford and Scott soon
[a]
[b]
R
18
[c]
R
R
[18F]Cabozantinib [18F]Track
[18F]FBnTP
O
thereafter described an adapted CMRF of (mesityl)(aryl)iodonium salts (vide supra)[124]. Concurrently, a method for the CMRF of pinacol boronates (Bpin) was reported by Gou­verneur (Scheme8.14a)[165, 166], while Sanford and Scott have also disclosed the
18
F-u­orination of arylboronic acids (Scheme8.14b)[167] and stannanes (Scheme8.14c)[168]. Since these reports, there have been several updates, including a robustness screen to determine functional group tolerance[169], investigation into pyridine eects[170], order of addition studies, the use of pyridinium sulfates[171], the use of promoter alcohols[172], improved drying methods[173], and a comparison of CMRF with the spi­rocyclic iodonium ylide method (vide supra)[174, 175]. CMRF has proven to be a versatile approach for the late-stage uorination of bioactive molecules to date, and the original reports have inspired the synthesis of numerous PET radiotracers (Figure8.5)[115], such
18
as 6-[
F]Fluorodihydroxyphenylalanine ([18F]FDOPA)[176], [18F]DAA1106, (vide supra),
amino acids[177, 178], 4-[
18
[
F]cabozantinib[180], and [18F]TRACK[181].
18
F]uorobenzyltriphenylphosphonium cation ([18F]FBnTP)[179],
Bpin
[Cu(OTf)2(py)4]
[18F]KF/K
DMF, 110 °C, 20 min
2.2.2
R
F
Scheme 8.14 Cop-
per-mediated
radiouorination of arenes.
18
B(OH)
SnR
2
3
Cu(OTf)2, pyridine, [18F]KF
110 °C, 20 min
[Cu],[18F]KF
R
R
F
18
F
Other radiouorination methodologies have been developed, but not widely imple­mented for various reasons. Of these, radiouorination of C(sp explored area with few methodologies available. In 2002, a C(sp
2
)–H bonds is an under-
2
)–H radiouorination
using an electrochemical method was achieved using benzene as the model substrate
18
F
F
H N
P
O
18
N
F
OMe
OMe
H N
O
O
18
F
HN
N
N
N
N
Figure 8.5 Select
radiotracers syn­thesized with
Cu-mediated radio-
uorination.
Chapter 08: Fluorine-18 Radiochemistry 269
(Scheme8.15a)[182]. Limitations of this and subsequent electrochemical methods are
[b]
18
that substituted precursors require carrier-added [
18
F]uoride and aord low yields, and possess selectivity issues[183, 184]. Furthermore, a recent radiouorination using a cleavable 8-aminoquinoline directing group has been developed by employing a copper catalyst in conjunction with 1,8-Diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU)[25]. Carboxylic acid products can be obtained by simply cleaving the directing group (Scheme8.15b). Notably, [
18
F]KF outperformed [18F]AgF, which was shown to be the optimal uorine-19
source in the original report from Dauglulis[185].
Scheme 8.15
Radiouorination of aryl C–H bonds.
H
N
HN
O
R
2 e , 18F
(MeCN)4CuOTf, K[18F], K
DBU
DMF, 100 °C, 30 min
2.2.2
F
N
HN
R
[a]
O
18
F
  
A challenge that PET radiochemists face is functional group compatibility with
18
[
F]uoride. Overcoming this challenge to synthesize radiopharmaceuticals usually entails a two-step procedure consisting of initial radiouorination and subsequent removal of protecting groups. However, given the growing popularity of technologies like immuno-PET[186], there are situations where this approach is infeasible. For example, scenarios requiring labeling of complicated molecules that are not compatible with uori­nation/deprotection conditions, or sensitive biologics/macromolecules, require dierent labeling strategies. In such cases, it is often preferred to directly label a prosthetic group that can then be added to the molecule/macromolecule/biologic that is ill-suited for direct uorination. To this end, a number of strategies have been developed, which are highlighted in this section.
 
There is utility in the use of prosthetic groups, as they allow molecules to be investi­gated by PET imaging that would otherwise be dicult to radiolabel directly. This pro­vides the potential to rapidly screen a number of peptides or small molecules of interest. Since the last edition of the Handbook, the use of classical prosthetic groups such as
270 Handbook of Radiopharmaceuticals
[18F]uoroethyltosylate and N-succinimidyl 4-[18F]uorobenzoate ([18F]SFB) has continued. For example, a study design and workow for screening radiotracers using [
18
F]SFB was described by the Sutclie lab[187]. In addition, new prosthetic groups continue to be developed, such as [
18
F]uoroalkynes, which can be synthesized and used in a Cu(I)-cata­lyzed 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition (a class of click reaction) with molecules of interest contain­ing a terminal azide (Scheme8.16a)[188]. This concept of using click chemistry has been widely adopted by the radiochemistry community[189–192]. For example, clinical studies supporting drug development was fully realized in work from Donnelly and co-workers, where a 2-nitropyridine with an ether linkage to a polyethylene glycol chain that termi­nates with an azide is rst radiolabeled by reaction with [
18
F]uoride (Scheme8.16b)[193]. This moiety was then combined with an anti–PD-L1 adnectin (a therapeutic protein) con­taining a strained alkyne to promote a cycloaddition for the attachment of the radiola­beled prosthetic group. The group at Bristol-Meyers Squibb took this through preclinical development and translated the use of this imaging agent and method to clinical trials, demonstrating the utility of this approach for the radiolabeling of biomolecules.
Click reactions are not limited to the 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions of azides and alkynes but can be any reaction that can occur in an orthogonal manner to “click” two molecules of interest together. Several other click methods have been developed, including the formation of oximes, hydrazones, thiol-Michael additions, and inverse-electron demand Diels-Alder reactions[194, 195]. In the oxime methods [
18
F]uorobenzaldehyde is treated with a molecule of interest containing a hydroxylamine with an aniline catalyst (Scheme8.16c)[196]. Glaser and co-workers found the oxime bond formation superior to both Si–F bond formation and Al-F- 1,4,7-triazacyclononane-1,4,7-triacetic acid (NOTA) methods (vide infra)[197]. In analogy, Dirksen has utilized hydrazone-based prosthetic group strategies. In this study, both oxime and a hydrazone conjugates were investigated, and the use of aniline as a catalyst was critical for the appreciable radiolabeling of peptides and proteins (Scheme8.16d)[198]. In the thiol­Michael approach, a maleimide bound to a labile moiety can be radiolabeled in the presence of tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine (TCEP) and subsequently attached to a biomolecule of interest that contains a thiol (such as a cysteine) to form a bond rapidly and orthogonally to other functional groups present (Scheme8.16e)[199].
Finally, the inverse-electron demand Diels-Alder reaction provides another version of a click reaction recently developed for use with PET labeled prosthetic groups. The Conti lab demonstrated that tetrazine-trans-cyclooctenes may be synthesized from a
18
[
F]cyclooctene derived prosthetic group and tetrazines via Diels-Alder cycloaddition. This approach is rapid and can be conducted at low concentrations, which is an impor­tant attribute given that high molar activity demands the use of small amounts of radio­labeled material for the prosthetic group (Scheme8.16f)[195, 200]. This ability of this process to occur at low concentration was further explored and exploited by the Lewis lab to develop a method for pretargeting a protein of interest with an antibody that con­tains a cyclooctene. Once the antibody had been given sucient time to bind its target, the tetrazine connected to a uorine-18 containing moiety was injected[201]. In vivo experiments indicated targeted uptake of the tetrazine-labeled moiety, demonstrating that the Diels-Alder reaction could even occur at physiological dilution. This is an inter­esting development as it allows large biomolecules like antibodies that have biological
Chapter 08: Fluorine-18 Radiochemistry 271
[b]
[d]
O
18
18
18
F
n
N
CuI, DIEA, Sodium Ascorbate
Peptide
3
F
N
n
N
N
O
[a]
Peptide
adnectin
O
O
18
N
F
O
N
3
Phosphate-Buffered Saline
O
adnectin
N
18
F
NNN
O
O
O
O
F
F
NH
O
N
H
O
[c]
18
F
H
N
NH
N
O
N H
N
O O
[e]
O
H
18
F
O
H
18
F
O
N H
N
F
O O
Anti-HER2-ONH
MeOH, NH4OAc, 15 min, 70 °C
O
NH
HSA
HYNIC, Sodium Phosphate
aniline, rt
peptide
Phosphate-Buffered Saline
DMSO, TCEP HCl
N
SH
NH
2
NH
2
Anti-HER2
18
HSA
18
S
18
F
H
O
H
NNNN
NN
N
NN N
peptide
O
18
[f]
F
N
Scheme 8.16 Use of click reactions for prosthetic group radiolabeling.
half-lives (days) incompatible with the physical half-life of uorine-18 to be imaged with uorine-18 through pretargeting. Further investigations have been reported, although the method has not been advanced to clinical use, suggesting that further developments are required.
272 Handbook of Radiopharmaceuticals
 
]
]
]
tBu
tBu
18
peptide
peptide
–F BOND
 
In recent years, radiochemists have begun to look beyond the C–18F bond in favor of other heteroatomic bonds to uorine-18, and a number of attractive examples that exploit the mild conditions associated with uorine-acceptor chemistry have been reported. Fluorine-acceptor chemistry takes advantage of stable uorine bonds to aluminum, boron, and silicon. These atoms have strong Lewis acid character, and uorine can be introduced under mild ion-exchange or chelation conditions. For example, the
18
[
F]uoroorganosilanes–[18F]uorotriphenylsilane, [18F]uoro-tbutyldiphenylsilane, and
18
[
F]uorodi-tbutylphenylsilane–were evaluated by Schirmmacher and co-workers[202]. They determined that di-tert-butyl substituted peptides gave the greatest in vivo stability in addition to ease of labeling with uorine-18 to yield [ Development of one-step kit-like labeling of boronic acid ester peptides with uorine-18 to give [
18
F]tetrauoroborates has been reported by Perrin and co-workers. Unlike most methods, this chemistry does not require drying of uoride and can be carried out under aqueous conditions (Scheme8.17b)[203].
18
F]silyl uorides (Scheme8.17a).
F
R
Me
O
N H
Me Me
O
O
N N
O
OH
N
Al
O
O
HN
Si
tBu
Bpin
peptide
[18F]KF/K
2.2.2
MeCN, 15 min
18
F]KHF
[
2
MeCN, 45 min, rt
[18F]KF
Saline, EtOH
15 min, 90–100 °C
R
peptide
O
O
Si
tBu
O
N H
Me Me
O
N
Al
N N
O
Scheme 8.17 Alternative approaches for 18F-labeling with silicon, boron,
and aluminum.
F
[a
Me
18
F
O
HN
K
F
18
F
B
F
[b
[c
Chapter 08: Fluorine-18 Radiochemistry 273
Another kit-like preparation for radiolabeling involves the use of NOTA peptides with
H
Me
O
Me
2
3+
Al
hydroxide complexes[204]. In this example, uorine-18 can displace hydroxide and form a strong Al–F bond (Scheme8.17c). Finally, Inkster and colleagues disclosed syn­theses of sulfonyl uoride-based prosthetic groups such as [
18
F]3-formyl-2,4,6-trimeth­ylbenzenesulfonyl uoride, which can be prepared from the corresponding sulfonyl chloride[205]. The prosthetic group was used for radiolabeling bombesin analogs (BBN­ONH
) through imine formation (Scheme8.18).
2
Scheme 8.18 [18F]
Sulfonyl uoride-
based pros-
thetic group.
BBN
O
Me
N
H
Me
SO
18
F
2
NO
BBN
H
SO
Me
18
F
2
Me
DMSO, Co-Solvent
 
To answer the increasing demand for novel radiopharmaceuticals labeled with uo­rine-18, a number of research groups have initiated method-development programs for late-stage radiouorination. Consequently, an impressive battery of novel methods for direct aliphatic and aromatic radiouorination have been described in recent years, and continue to be reported [206]. Concurrently, the introduction of new prosthetic groups and strategies for generating thesis of established radiotracers, while also enabling
18
FB, 18FSi, 18FS, and 18FAl bonds have improved the syn-
18
F-labeling of bioactive mole­cules in an increasingly complex chemical space that has been previously inaccessible to imaging scientists.

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18
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18
F]uoride ion. Eur. J. Org. Chem.
11
C, 18F, 15O, and 13N radio-
274 Handbook of Radiopharmaceuticals