Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:From a word to an idea. Part 1. Учебное пособие
.pdf
completely bald. He reminded you of Mr. Pickwick. He was grotesque, a figure of
fun, and yet, strangely enough, not without dignity.” (S.M. Mackintosh).
There are two main methods of character drawing: direct and indirect
characterization.
When the author describes the character himself, or makes another do it, it is
direct characterization. When the author shows the character in action, and lets the
reader judge for himself, it is indirect characterization. In this case the character’s
portrait is drawn through his action or speech.
Characters, like other elements in a work of fiction (e.g. events, scenery,
atmosphere), are “functions”. The reader may classify or identify the characters he
comes across into traditional or historical types, such as the 18th or 19th century
miser, rogue, wily servant, heartless dandy, etc. (W.M. Thackeray. “Vanity Fair”:
Rebecca Sharp)
E.M. Foster differentiates between “flat” and “round” characters, and
occasionally insignificant characters [8].
Flat characters are built around a single idea, trait or quality. They are static,
they never change, are not allowed to develop; they are predictable, unalterable,
permanent. They always lack the depth needed for a tragic or even sensitive
character, but often serve as comic characters. E.g. Mr. Pickwick and other
characters in Dickens’s novels.
A round character is capable of all the human emotions from joy to sorrow.
He needs space and emphasis, as he is liable to develop, to deteriorate or improve.
The plot and character are closely linked. Round characters interact, play on each
other, they are constantly unexpected and surprising. [8]
Style in modern writing has changed. It is difficult to find in modern novels
the “types” of Dickens’ novels. The concept of the “round” character with its depth
and development is changing too. The concept of personality has been shattered by
many writers, by modern human sciences (psychoanalysis, structuralism, etc.). The
characters have lost all consistency; their behavior often seems strange, inexplicable
and illogical.
41
If two characters have distinctly opposing features, one serves as a foil to the
other, and the contrast between them becomes more apparent. Round and flat
characters have different functions in the conflict of the story. The conflict may be
external, i.e. between human beings or between man and the environment
(individual against nature, individual against the established order (values in the
society). The internal conflict takes place in the mind, here the character is torn
between opposing features of his personality. The two parties in the conflict are
called the protagonist and his antagonist [8].
The image of nature, thing images. Nature becomes an image when it
expresses emotional state of a protagonist or an author. It surrounds a person from
his birth. It is a continuous object of his perception and a source of his emotions.
Nature plays a number of roles in a literary work. In poetry it plays a leading part,
while in prose it plays a supporting role – to create a full character sketch of a
protagonist or it can stand for a background of a conflict.
Nature can be in harmony with a protagonist or in contrast. The contrast
between a protagonist and nature shows his inner dissonance, his selfishness and
fuss in comparison with peaceful greatness of Nature.
Descriptions of peaceful nature influence a reader positively. A writer applies
for such descriptions before dynamic events that can result in unexpected
denouement. Here we deal with the case of defeated expectancy and the impact is
very strong.
Thing image (“образ вещественной природы” – a term introduced by V.A.
Kuharenko) can also fulfill a contrasting function in a text. But the main function is
to make an image of a protagonist full. While nature reflects a protagonist’s
emotional state, thing images (clothes, furniture, surroundings) reflect his tastes,
interests, habits and preferences [5].
Images of characters, thing and landscape images are not created by a single
word or within one part of a story, they develop throughout the whole text and are
created by micro-images – word images.
42
Theme and idea. The theme of a literary work is the represented aspect of
life. As literary works commonly have human characters for their subject of
depiction, the theme of a literary work may be understood to be an interaction of
human characters under certain circumstances, such as some social or psychological
conflict (war and peace, race discrimination, a clash of ideologies and the like). A
writer may depict the same theme, e.g. the theme of war, from different angles. The
same theme may on the one hand be differently developed and integrated with other
themes in different works. Within a single work the basic theme may alternate with
rival themes and their relationship may be complex. Thus, for instance, the basic
theme of “The Forsyte Saga” may be defined as the life of the English middle class
at the end of and after the Victorian epoch. This basic theme is disclosed mainly in
the representation of the Forsyte family, specifically in Soames’s lines. The bythemes in this comprehensive trilogy are numerous: the first Labour government,
the post-war generation, the general strike, the arts and artists, etc. They are all
linked together to represent a unity. Indeed, a link between the various constructive
themes is indispensable: without such a link the literary work loses its essential
characteristic, which is unity of all its elements. The theme of a literary work can be
easily understood from the plot (the surface layer) of the work [11].
The idea of a literary work is the underlying thought and emotional attitude
transmitted to the reader by the whole poetic structure of the literary text. Poetic
structure being a multi-layered entity, all of its layers pertain to the expression of the
idea.
Genre. The word “genre” which comes from French, where its primary
meaning is “a kind”, denotes in the theory of literature a historically formed type of
literary work.
Genres are distinguished according to three factors:
1) according to the represented aspect of reality: epic, lyric and dramatic
genres.
If it is outside events that are objectively narrated by the author, the genre is
epic with narrative prose as its main variety.
43
If the author speaks about an aspect of reality reflected his own inner world, if
his emotions and meditations are presented without a clearly cut thematic or
temporal setting, the genre is lyric with lyric poetry as its main variety.
If it is present day conflicting events that are represented in the speech and
actions of characters in their interrelation with each other, the genre is dramatic,
with different types of plays as its main manifestations.
2) according to the nature of the represented conflict: where the conflict is
fatal for the main character or, on the contrary, easily overcome by him and
expressed in a peculiar emotive quality of writing (elevated, humorous, ironic,
sarcastic) works are divided into tragedy, comedy and drama.
3) according to the volume of the represented subject matter in narrative
prose, for instance, we distinguish novel and short story.
A short story is usually centered on one main character (protagonist), one
conflict, one theme, while in a novel alongside the main theme there are several
other, rival themes; several minor conflicts alongside the main conflict rival
characters alongside the main character.
“Pure genres” are characteristic of ancient Greek and Roman literature as well
as that of the Renaissance and Classicism periods. In modern literature (since the
18th century) mixed genres are prevalent.
2.2 Practical tasks
Task 1. Read the story written by E. Hemingway and answer the
following questions:
1. What is the story about? Is it complicated?
2. In what vein is the story written? What images impart the story this
tone?
3. What role does the weather play in the story?
4. How does the author create his characters? What methods of
characterization are used?
5. What are the relations in the young family? How are they shown?
6. Whose eyes is the description of the hotelkeeper given through?
7. What is the difference between the husband and the hotelkeeper? Why
and how is it emphasized?
8. Why and how is the girl’s desire to have a cat shown? (Analyze stylistic
devises used to achieve this effect).
44
9. What type of conflict is shown in the story?
10
11
10. Single out the theme and the main idea of the story. Prove your point
of view.
CAT IN THE RAIN
Ernest Hemingway
There were only two Americans stopping at the hotel. They did not know any
of the people they passed on the stairs on their way to and from their room. Their
room was on the second floor facing the sea. It also faced the public garden and the
war monument. There were big palms and green benches in the public garden. In the
good weather there was always an artist with his easel. Artists liked the way the
palms grew and the bright colors of the hotels facing the gardens and the sea.
Italians came from a long way off to look up at the war monument. It was made of
bronze and glistened in the rain. It was raining. The rain dripped from the palm
trees. Water stood in pools on the gravel paths. The sea broke in a long line in the
rain and slipped back down the beach to come up and break again in a long line in
the rain. The motor cars were gone from the square by the war monument. Across
the square in the doorway of the cafe a waiter stood looking out at the empty square.
The American wife stood at the window looking out. Outside right under their
window a cat was crouched under one of the dripping green tables. The cat was
trying to make herself so compact that she would not be dripped on.
“I’m going down and get that kitty,” the American wife said.
“I'll do it,” her husband offered from the bed. “No, I'll get it. The poor kitty
out trying to keep dry under a table.”
The husband went on reading, lying propped up with the two pillows at the
foot of the bed. “Don't get wet,” he said.
The wife went downstairs and the hotel owner stood up and bowed to her as
she passed the office. His desk was at the far end of the office. He was an old man
and very tall.
“I piove10,” the wife said. She liked the hotelkeeper. “Si, si, Signora, brutto
tempo11. It's very bad weather.”
He stood behind his desk in the far end of the dim room. The wife liked him.
She liked the deadly serious way he received any complaints. She liked his dignity.
(итал.) Дождь идет.
(итал.) Да, да, синьора, погода скверная.
45
She liked the way he wanted to serve her. She liked the way he felt about being a
12
13
12
13
hotelkeeper. She liked his old, heavy face and big hands.
Liking him she opened the door and looked out. It was raining harder. A man
in a rubber cape was crossing the empty square to the cafe. The cat would be around
to the right. Perhaps she could go along under the leaves. As she stood in the
doorway an umbrella opened behind her. It was the maid who looked after their
room.
“You must not get wet,” she smiled, speaking Italian. Of course, the
hotelkeeper had sent her.
With the maid holding the umbrella over her, she walked along the gravel
path until she was under their window. The table was there, washed bright green in
the rain, but the cat was gone. She was suddenly disappointed. The maid looked up
at her.
“Ha perduto qualque cosa, Signora?
”
“There was a cat,” said the American girl.
“A cat?”
“Si, il gatto.
”
“A cat?” the maid laughed. “A cat in the rain?” “Yes,” she said, “under the
table.” Then, “Oh, I wanted it so much, I wanted a kitty.”
When she talked English the maid's face tightened. “Come, Signora,” she
said. “We must get back inside. You will be wet.”
“I suppose so,” said the American girl.
They went back along the gravel path and passed in the door. The maid stayed
outside to close the umbrella. As the American girl passed the office, the padrone
bowed from his desk. Something felt very small and tight inside the girl. The
padrone made her feel very small and at the same time really important. She had a
momentary feeling of being of supreme importance. She went on up the stairs. She
opened the door of the room. George was on the bed, reading.
“Did you get the cat?” he asked, putting the book down.
“It was gone.”
“Wonder where it went to,” he said, resting his eyes from reading. She sat
down on the bed.
(итал.) Вы потеряли что-нибудь, синьора?
(итал.) Да, кошка.
46
“I wanted it so much,” she said. “I don't know why I wanted it so much. I
14
14
wanted that poor kitty. It isn't any fun to be a poor kitty out in the rain.” George was
reading again.
She went over and sat in front of the mirror of the dressing table looking at
herself with the hand glass. She studied her profile, first one side and then the other.
Then she studied the back of her head and her neck.
“Don't you think it would be a good idea if I let my hair grow out?” she
asked, looking at her profile again.
George looked up and saw the back of her neck, clipped close like a boy's.
“I like it the way it is.”
“I get so tired of it,” she said. «I get so tired of looking like a boy.”
George shifted his position in the bed. He hadn't looked away from her since
she started to speak. “You look pretty darn nice,” he said.
She laid the mirror down on the dresser and went over to the window and
looked out. It was getting dark.
“I want to pull my hair back tight and smooth and make a big knot at the back
that I can feel,” she said. “I want to have a kitty to sit on my lap and purr when I
stroke her.”
“Yeah?” George said from the bed.
“And I want to eat at a table with my own silver and I want candles. And I
want it to be spring and I want to brush my hair out in front of a mirror and I want a
kitty and I want some new clothes.”
“Oh, shut up and get something to read,” George said. He was reading again.
His wife was looking out of the window. It was quite dark now and still
raining in the palm trees.
“Anyway, I want a cat,” she said, “I want a cat. I want a cat now. If I can't
have long hair or any fun, I can have a cat.”
George was not listening. He was reading his book. His wife looked out of the
window where the light had come on in the square.
Someone knocked at the door.
“Avanti,
” George said. He looked up from his book.
In the doorway stood the maid. She held a big tortoise-shell cat pressed tight
against her and swung down against her body.
“Excuse me,” she said, “the padrone asked me to bring this for the Signora.”
(итал.) Войдите.
47
3 Unit 3. The author’s image
3.1 Types of narration
3.1.1 An Outline
A narrator is, within any story (literary work, movie, play, verbal account,
etc.), the fictional or non-fictional, personal or impersonal entity who tells the story
to the audience. When the narrator is also a character within the story, he or she is
sometimes known as the viewpoint character. The narrator is one of three entities
responsible for story-telling of any kind. The others are the author and the audience;
the latter called the "reader" when referring specifically to literature.
The author and the audience both inhabit the real world. It is the author’s
function to create the universe, people, and events within the story. It is the
audience's function to understand and interpret the story. The narrator only exists
within the world of the story (and only there—although in non-fiction the narrator
and the author can share the same person, since the real world and the world of the
story may be the same) and present it in a way the audience can comprehend.
A narrator may tell the story from his own point of view (as a fictive entity) or
from the point of view of one of the characters in the story. The act or process of
telling the particulars of a story is referred to as narration. Along with exposition,
argumentation, and description, narration (broadly defined) is one of four rhetorical
modes of discourse. More narrowly defined, narration is the fiction-writing mode
whereby the narrator communicates directly to the reader.
Types of narration (narrative modes). A writer's choice of narrator is
crucial because the way of work fiction is perceived by the reader. Most narrators
present their story from one of the following perspectives (called narrative modes):
a. the author’s narration done by the omniscient narrator;
b. entrusted narrative carried out in the 1st person singular;
c. anonymous entrusted narrative carried out in the 3d person.
48
1) the author’s narration done by the omniscient narrator
(аукториальный рассказчик):
A third-person omniscient narrator gives a panoramic view of the world of the
story, looking into many characters and into the broader background of a story. A
third-person omniscient narrator can tell feelings of every character. He has direct
knowledge of them and acts as an observer, as he is above the world of narration.
For stories in which the context and the views of many characters are important, a
third-person narrator is a better choice.
2) entrusted narrative carried out in the 1st person singular:
The writer entrusts some fictitious character (who might also participate in the
narrated events) with the task of story-telling to make his writing more plausible, to
impress the reader with the effect of authenticity of the described events. The writer
himself thus hides behind the figure of the narrator, presents all the events of the
story from the latter's viewpoint and only sporadically emerges in the narrative with
his own considerations which may reinforce, or contradict those expressed by the
narrator [10].
A first-person narrator brings greater focus on the feelings, opinions, and
perceptions of a particular character in a story, and on how the character views the
world and the views of other characters. In the entrusted narrative carried out in the
1st person singular the narrator proceeds with his story openly and explicitly, from
his own name, as, e.g., in “The Catcher in the Rye” by J. D. Salinger, or ‘”The Great
Gatsby” by Sc. Fitzgerald. In the first book Holden Caulfield himself retells about
the crisis in his own life which makes the focus of the novel. In this case the narrator
is both a speaker and a perceiver.
In the second book Nick Carraway tells about Jay Gatsby, whom he met only
occasionally, so that to tell Gatsby's life-story he had to lean on the knowledge of
other personages too. In the first case the narration has fewer deviations from the
main line, than in the second in which the narrator has to supply the reader also with
the information about himself and his connection with the protaganist. In this case
the narrator is a speaker and an observer of the events.
49
3) anonymous entrusted narrative carried out in the 3d person (also
known as third person limited narrator). The anonymous narrator can be is the
protagonist referring to himself in the third person. The author himself hides behind
the limited narrator, but as in the case with the 1st person narration the narrator tells
only about his own feelings or if the other characters’ than only of those which can
be observed making the narrative mode rather restricted.
The most objective type of narration is the author’s narration done by the
omniscient author. The other two types are more or less subjective as they reveal
empathy and participation in the story told.
Multiple narrators. A writer may choose to let several narrators tell the story
from different points of view. Then it is up to the reader to decide which narrator
seems most reliable for each part of the story. It may refer to the style of the writer
in which he/she expresses the paragraph written. William Faulkner's “As I Lay
Dying” is a prime example of the use of multiple narrators. Faulkner employs
stream of consciousness by narrating the story from the first person view of multiple
characters. Each chapter is devoted to the voice of a single character after whom it is
titled. Some writers employ an alternate form of this style, in which multiple
characters narrate the story at once, or at least a single character narrates the actions
of a group of characters while never referring to a "me", and only to a "we" of the
group. The technique of narrating from the point of view of a group as opposed to
an individual can create a dissociative effect of observation, as if a Greek chorus, or
personalize the story further by providing the reader with the knowledge and
experience of a party involved in the story, without the specifics of an individual
personality or character.
In literary work, the narrator is the person who tells the story. Point of view is
the narrator’s relationship to the story. In a story using first-person point of view,
the narrator is a character in the story. The reader sees everything through the
character's eyes. In a work with third-person limited point of view, the narrator is
outside the story and reveals the thoughts and feelings of only one character.
50
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]