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Файл:Economics in Construction. Учебное пособие
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8. There are a lot of статистических просчетов that lead to incorrect
conclusions.
9. To find the value of the coefficients you can apply different методы
анализа.
4. Translate into English:
1.
(contribute to)
7.
8.
9.
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5. Answer the questions to the text:
1. trade gap
a. a fast decrease in something; in this case the American
dollar
2. unsustainable
b. make something less stable and strong
3. destabilizing
impact
c. the difference between the
imported goods and services and exported goods and
services
4. sudden slump
d. increased quickly or uncontrollably
5. currency
devaluation
e. here, the countries that the United States of America buys
goods and services from and sells goods and services to
6. deficit in
trade
time period
7. mushroomed
g. the total amount by which money spent (on imports) is
more than money received (through exports)
8. trading
partners
h. a deliberate decrease in the value of a currency against an
official standard, like gold; the end result is that the currency
is worth less than before
1. What is econometrics?
2. What are the two main purposes of econometrics?
3. How many and what kind of analyses are used in econometrics?
6. Discuss the following:
1. Can we measure personal expenditure and income correctly, using the
methods of econometrics?
7. Match the words or phrases with their definitions and translate
them:
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8. Complete the sentences:
1. An implementation of this framework you can see ...
2. Some data sets provide ...
3. Econometrics extensively deals with ...
4. The amount a person spends is depend on ...
5. In exact sciences one must empirically verify ...
6. Experienced persons sometimes make ...
7. You may be sure that if you measure personal expenditure and income
correctly...
8. Multi-dimensional panel shows ...
9. Time-
9. Translate the text in a written form:
America's trade gap mushroomed last year largely because the US
economy grew rather faster than its trading partners economies. While
Americans bought record amounts of imported consumer goods, notably cars
and electronic products, US exporters had a hard time selling into sluggish
markets abroad.
The trade gap in manufactured products has been widening for sometime -
partly due to the growing significance of imports from low wage developing
nations, notably China. That's an established trend. More surprising were figures
showing that last year imports of farm products into the US exceeded the value
of agricultural exports for only the second time ever.
Worryingly for policy makers, the deficit in trade of all types of goods
showed an unexpectedly large increase in the final month of last year. Economic
theory suggests that ultimately excessive trade deficits are corrected by
currency devaluation. A sudden slump in the value of the US dollar would
probably have a destabilizing impact on the entire world economy.
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It hasn't happened yet though the dollar has declined modestly in value
in recent months but it still might. America's trade gap is clearly huge, but
nobody really knows whether it's unsustainable
10. Put questions to the words in bold and answer them.
11. Make up your own sentences using the words in bold.
12. Discuss the following:
1. Imports of manufactured products from low wage developing nations:
is it profitable for national economic or not?
2. The quality and competitive price of imported goods in comparison
with quality and price of national manufactures.
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U N I T 8
INFORMATION THEORY
Information theory is a discipline
in applied mathematics involving the
quantification of data with the goal of
enabling as much data as possible to be
reliably stored on a medium and/or
communicated over a channel. The
measure of data, known as information entropy, is usually expressed by the
average number of bits needed for storage or communication. For example, if a
daily weather description has 3 bits of entropy, then, over enough days, we can
describe daily weather with an average of approximately 3 bits per day (each bit
being a 0 or a 1).
Applications of fundamental topics of information theory include ZIP files
(lossless data compression), MP3s (lossy data compression), and DSL (channel
coding). The field is at the crossroads of mathematics, statistics, computer
science, physics and electrical engineering, and its impact has been crucial to
success of the Voyager missions to deep space, the invention of the CD, the
feasibility of mobile phones, the development of the Internet, the study of
linguistics and of human rception, the understanding of black holes, and
numerous other fields.
Information theory is the mathematical theory of data communication and
storage, generally considered to have been founded in 1948 by Claude E.
Shannon. The central paradigm of classic information theory is the engineering
problem of the transmission of information over a noisy channel. The most
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establishes that on average the number of bits needed to represent the result of
an uncertain event is given by the entropy; and Shannon's noisy-channel coding
theorem, which states that reliable communication is possible over noisy
channels provided that the rate of communication is below a certain threshold
called the channel capacity. The channel capacity is achieved with appropriate
encoding and decoding systems.
Information theory is closely associated with a collection of pure and
applied disciplines that have been carried out under a variety of banners in
different parts of the world over the past half century or more: adaptive systems,
anticipatory systems, artificial intelligence, complex systems, complexity
science, cybernetics, informatics, machine learning, along with systems sciences
of many descriptions. Information theory is a broad and deep mathematical
theory, with equally broad and deep applications, chief among them coding
theory.
Coding theory is concerned with finding explicit methods, called codes, of
increasing the efficiency and fidelity of data communication over a noisy
channel up near the limit that Shannon proved is all but possible. These codes
can be roughly subdivided into data compression and error- correction codes. It
took many years to find the good codes whose existence Shannon proved. A
third class of codes are cryptographic ciphers; concepts from coding theory and
information theory are much used in cryptography and cryptanalysis.
The good of information is its use in reducing our uncertainty about some
issue that comes before us. Generally speaking, uncertainty comes in several
flavours, and so the information that serves to reduce uncertainty can be applied
in several different ways. The situations of uncertainty that human agents
commonly find themselves facing have been investigated under many headings,
literally for ages, and the classifications that subtle thinkers arrived at long
before the dawn of modem information theory still have their uses in setting the
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stage of an introduction.
Picking an example of a subtle thinker almost at random, the philosopher-
scientist Immanuel Kant divided the principal questions of human existence into
three parts: What's true? What's to do? What's to hope?
The third question is a bit too subtle for the present frame of discussion,
but the first and second are easily recognizable as staking out the two main axes
of information theory, namely, the dual dimensions of information and control.
Roughly the same space of concerns is elsewhere spanned by the dual axes of
competence and performance, specification and optimization, or just plain
knowledge and skill.
A question of what's true is a descriptive question, and there exist what
are called descriptive sciences devoted to answering descriptive questions about
any domain of phenomena that one might care to name.
A question of what's to do, in other words, what must be done by way of
achieving a given aim, is a normative question, and there exist what are called
normative sciences devoted to answering normative questions about any domain
of problems that one might care to address.
Since information plays its role on a stage set by uncertainty, a big part of
saying what information is will necessarily involve saying what uncertainty is.
There is little chance that the vagueness of a word like 'uncertainty', given the
nuances of its ordinary, poetic, and technical uses, can be corralled by a single
pen, but there do exist established models and formal theories that address
definable aspects of uncertainty, and these have enough uses to make them
worth looking into. Information theory is also used in information retrieval,
intelligence gathering, gambling, statistics, and even musical composition.
Source: M. Mansuripur, Instruction to Information Theory, 2001
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GRAMMATICAL NOTES
increasing the efficiency-увеличение эффективности.
-ing
VOCABULARY
provided that
vagueness
to be concerned with -
quantification
information entropy
-
gambling
feasibility
channel capacity
anticipatory system
retrieval
axe
at the crossroad of
subtle [sʌtl] thinker
1. Give Russian equivalents to the following word combinations:
Data quantification; lossless data compression; error-correction codes;
channel coding; channel capacity; human perception; to be stored on; deep
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space; feasibility of mobile phones; crucial impact; information entropy; broad
and deep applications; a reliable medium; black holes; a number of bits; explicit
methods; efficiency and fidelity of data communication; to prove existence;
noisy channel; transmission of information; encoding and decoding systems;
data storage; to be concerned with; anticipatory systems; established models;
information retrieval; devoted to; to set the stage.
2. Find in the text and give English equivalents to the following
word combinations:
-
3. Translate words and word combinations in bold:
1. The data can be reliably сохраняться на носителе or communicated
over a channel.
2. Scientists have found some черных дыр in the space.
3. The quality of transmission of data depends upon пропускной
способности канала.
4. Квантификация данных is necessary in order to enable as much
data as possible to be reliably stored on a medium and communicated over a
channel.
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5. Информационная энтропия is known as measurement of data.
6. Information entropy is usually expressed by the средним
количеством битов, needed for storage or communication.
7. Файлы сжатия информации без потерь and channel coding are
two examples of applied topics of information theory.
8. Системы управления с прогнозированием are one of the domains
of application of information theory.
9. Every science has теоретические и прикладные дисциплины.
4. Translate into English:
1. -
5.
5. Answer the questions to the text:
1. What is the main function of information theory?
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