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Index
5HT (serotonin), 89–90
acetylcholine (ACh), 89
ageing, 51, 150, 154
alertness, 154–155
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
(ALS), 147
anaesthetics, 147
antisaccade task, 60, 77–79,
87–88, 147 , 150, 154,
155
Aristotle, 110
ascending control, 89
ascending systems, 89–91, 93
Asimov, Isaac, 1
asynchronous tasks, 56
attention, 7, 25, 32, 49, 57, 68,
89–90, 93–94, 105, 119
auditory stimuli, 17–19, 30,
154
Babbage, Charles, 108
Bacon, Francis, 1, 106
basal ganglia, 7, 84–85, 104
Bayesian decision-making, 41,
49, 59, 141, 143
Bayesian probability
decision-making, 41, 49, 59,
141, 143
quasi-Bayesian processes,
63
Bayes’ Law, 39–40, 47, 52, 133
belief, 9, 35–36, 37, 40, 96–98,
99, 116, 133–134, 142
Bereitschaftspotential, 105
binary choice task, 52
bin-width, 9–10
bookmakers, 35, 136
brain, 74, 80, 85–89, 91,
93–94, 104 –111 , 113,
134, 136, 143–144, 148
anatomy
basal ganglia, 7, 84–85,
104
cerebral cortex, 7, 77, 80,
82, 87, 112, 149
cingulate cortex, 88
cortex, 7, 25, 83, 84, 89,
103, 112
176
habenula, 84 , 85–86
superior colliculus, 6, 48,
77, 81, 83–85, 86, 87
cerebral hierarchy, 81
injury, ix, 149, 156
structural evolution, 80see
also neurons.
cerebral cortex, 7, 77, 80, 82,
87, 112, 149
cerebral hierarchy, 81
chaotic systems, 93
choice task, 48, 52–53
cingulate cortex, 88
collicular, 6,
concussion, 149
conditional probabilities,
consciousness, 1, 25, 36, 105,
contrast, 42, 59–61, 63, 65,
control trials, 75, 156
cortex, 7, 25, 83, 84, 89, 103,
countermanding tasks, 74–76,
counting models, 119–120
counting task, 58
Croone, William, 105, 111
cuing tasks, 50
DA. 1 See dopamine.
da Vinci, Leonardo, 22
decision-making, 19, 20, 32,
conscious vs unconscious,
defined, 33
detection and, 60–63, 66
idealised, 33
LATER as model, 32
probability and, 37
reaction time and, 42
saccades as result, ix, 19see
decision units, main, 26–28
28
38–40, 49–50, 142
106, 109
118, 153
112
78, 88, 91, 155
33, 34, 39, 49, 59, 62,
65, 68, 83–88,
103–104, 105, 112, 133
20
also latency.
decition units, maverick, 26,
103
deep brain stimulation,
146
deliberate delay, 48
dementia, 91, 147
Descartes, Rene, 107
detection, 45, 59, 60–63,
65–66, 96, 128, 141
difference counting,
122–123
distraction, 25, 48
distractor task, 60
distributions
Audley, 124–126
bimodal, 28,
bivariate, 140
cumulative, 79
exponential, 123
gamma, 120–121
Kintsch, 124–126
Kolmogorov–Smirnov (KS)
La Berge, 120–121
normal (Gaussian), 10–12,
normex, 122–124
Poisson, 27, 123–126
recinormal, 13, 14–17, 20,
21, 25, 27, 55, 69,
117–119, 120, 123,
125–127, 129
skewed, 117
Weibull, 125
dopamine, 89, 90
Dryden, John, 46
duration, 5, 46, 63–64, 66, 69,
endarterectomy, 148
epithalamus, 85
equipossibility, 34–35, 37, 38,
expectation, 42, 44–45, 47, 51,
experimental tasks.156 See
130
test, 15, 17, 94, 138,
156
22, 117, 118, 122, 129
151–152, 154
43
57–58, 68, 72, 90, 94,
111, 130
tasks,
Index 177
express responses, 28–29, 58,
131
extrinsic suppression, 74
eye movement, smooth
pursuit, 20–21
eye trackers, 151
FEF. 7 See frontal eye fields.
Finetti, Bruno de, 36
Fisher, R. A., 101, 102–103,
137, 141
Flourens, Jean, 110
foreperiod, 4, 50–51, 77, 94, 154
free will, 105, 109–110, 111
frequency, 34, 35–36, 37, 38,
40, 117, 133, 139
frontal eye fields (FEF), 7, 55,
81, 83–84, 86–87, 91
GABA, 89
game theory, 101, 102
gamma function, 119–120
gap task, 50, 58, 131
Gaussian distribution, 10–14,
20, 22–23, 118, 127–128
Go / NoGo task, 52, 76–78, 85,
88, 155
habenula, 84, 85–86
hearing, 17–19, 30, 154
Hebbian synapses, 142–144
hepatic encephalopathy,
149–150
Hick’s Law, 43
histograms, 9–11, 13, 156
cumulative, 10 –11, 14, 131,
157
frequency, 9–10, 26, 118
Holmes, Gordon, 25
Hume, David, 111
Huntington’s disease, 85, 147
hypothalamus, 82 –83, 104
intersaccadic interval (ISI), 66,
68–70, 72
James, William, 5
Kelvin, William Thomson,
Lord, 8
Keynes, John Maynard, 35
Kolmogorov–Smirnov (KS)
test, 15, 17, 94, 138, 156
La Berge Distribution,
120–121
latency, 2, 4–5, 8, 9, 13–15, 20,
21, 22, 23, 30–31,
42–46, 48, 50–52, 59,
60, 61, 65, 66, 86–88,
117–118, 139, 151–154
asynchronous tasks, 57
causes, 8
causes of variability, 33
contrast, 65
detection, 61
difference counting, 122
distribution, 8– 9
reciprobit plots, 14
repeated trials, 23
by tasks, 20
underlying mechanism,
distribution of, 33, 42
distributions, 15, 23, 42–47,
bimodal, 131
gap tasks, 58
histograms, 9, 13
intersaccidic interval as, 66
noise and randomness,
pre-emption, 138
prior probability tasks, 43,
promptness and, 13
reciprocal, 117
saccadic, ix, 5, 6, 9, 16, 22,
smooth pursuit task, 21
step task, 42
step tasks, 149see also
lateral geniculate nucleus, 7,
lateral inhibition, 25, 51, 53,
lateral intraparietal area, 88
LATER model, 22, 23, 28, 33,
as Bayesian decision device,
behavioural tests, 42
consceptual parsimony, 30
as decision model, 32
expectation and, 42
, 64
22–23
54, 61, 66, 70, 94, 119,
130, 139, 151
59–60, 87, 91
49
30, 31, 44, 60, 62, 70,
130, 146–147, 151, 154
reaction time.
70
55–58, 70–72, 99
42, 44, 45, 52, 53, 54,
57, 59, 68–69, 71, 72,
78, 80, 81, 83, 85–86,
90, 91, 120–126, 128,
146–147
41
as latency model, 22
main parameters, 22
maverick units, 26, 103
multiple units, 25
overview, 23
parallel units, 26, 28
rise-to-threshold, 22, 42, 43,
50, 60–61, 64–65, 100,
141
unit, 25–28, 49, 52–53,
55–56, 57, 62, 74,
77–78, 83–85, 92–93,
124, 138, 140–141
LATEST model, 68, 72–73
Laurentius, 2
likelihood ratio
complex, 97
total, 40
LLR (log likelihood ratio),
40–41, 88
145, 156
logarithms, 13, 37, 135, 136
logical probability, 35
logistic function, 127–129
log likelihood, 99–100, 112
log likelihood ratio. 40 See
LLR.
lotteries, 34–35, 38, 135
Lovelace, Ada, 108
manual responses, 17, 19,
30–31, 65, 147, 152
Marsh, Henry, 106
maverick unit, 26, 103
Maxwell, James Clerk, 33
medical diagnosis, 41
Micko distribution, 126–128
migraine, 148–149
Monte Carlo simulations, 26,
126
multidimensional inference,
96
music reading, 68–69, 105, 109
NA (noradrenaline), 89–90,
149
Napoleon, 111
neurons, 5–
83, 86, 88, 92, 93, 99,
110, 112–113, 134,
136–138, 142–144
frontal eye fields, 86
lateral intraparietal area, 88,
90
randomization, 92
visual, 55, 70, 82, 83, 86
, 98, 112, 116,
7, 36, 56, 60, 63,
178 Index
neurotransmitters, 89
Nieuwenhuys, Rudolph, 89, 95
noise, 48, 55, 59, 66, 100, 112,
119, 136–137, 155
noradrenaline, 89–90, 149
normal distribution, 22,
127–128
normex distribution, 122–124
oculometer, 151–155
oculomotor system, 31, 68, 69,
82, 154
optic nerve, 2, 5
optokinetic nystagmus, 69–70
parafovea, 68
Parkinson’s disease, 85, 146
Peirce, Charles Sanders, 37,
142
phenylketoneurea, 150
pineal body, 85
Poincaré, Henri, 115
Poisson distribution, 27,
123–126
Poisson process, 26
Popper, Karl, 42
Porterfield, William, 2
pragmatic functions, 122–123
precedence tasks, 56,
139
predator–prey relationships,
102
pre-emption, 130, 137–138
prior probabilities, 40, 43–45,
47, 49, 51, 62–64, 65,
78–79, 93–94, 111–112,
113, 133, 134, 142
probabilities, conditional,
38–40, 49– 50, 142
probability, 14, 33–40, 52–54,
83, 94, 97, 98–100, 111,
113, 120, 133–137,
139, 142, 144–145, 156
Bayesian, priors, 40, 43–45,
47, 49, 51, 62–64, 65,
78–79, 93–94, 111–112,
113, 133, 134, 142
conditional, 38–40, 49–50,
142
definition, 33 –34
equipossibility, 34 – 35, 37,
38, 43
frequency, 34, 35–36, 37, 38,
40, 117, 133, 139
logical, 35
75, 92,
odds, 37, 40–42, 52–53, 65,
97–99, 112, 115, 134,
136–137, 141–142
propensity, 35
subjective, 36–38, 100, 109,
131–133, 135–137, 155
probability, Bayesian, prior,
40, 43–45, 47, 49, 51,
53, 63, 65, 71, 78–79,
90, 93–94, 134, 142
probability density function,
10, 117
probability theory, Bayes’ Law,
39–40, 47, 52, 133
procrastination, ix, 5, 8, 22,
46–48, 71, 100
progressive supranuclear
palsy, 147
propensity, 35 , 37, 100
prosaccades, 77–79
protocol design, 154
psychiatric disorders, 150
psychophysics, 32, 131
quasi-Bayesian processes, 63
random-dot kinetograms
(RDK), 44–45, 58–59,
62, 144
random-dot tachistograms
(RDT), 58–59
randomness, 33, 42, 57, 86–87,
91–93, 100–103, 111
externally-generated, 93
random walk, 59–60, 61, 64,
65–66, 124–127, 144
RDK.44 See random dot
kinetogram.
RDT.59 See random dot
tachistograms.
reaction times.ix See latency.
reading, 28, 66–70
music, 68–69, 105, 109
text, 66
recinormal distribution, 13,
14–17, 20, 21, 25, 27,
55, 69, 117–119, 120,
123, 125–127, 129
recinormal processes, 29,
129–130
reciprobit plots, 14–16, 19–20,
22–26, 28–30, 44,
45–46, 51, 67, 70,
118–120, 122,
125–131, 139–140, 156
reciprocal latency
reward, 86, 88, 96, 103, 104,
133
rise-to-threshold models, 22,
42, 43, 50, 60–61,
64–65, 100, 141
roulette wheels, 34, 35, 100, 111
saccades, 2–7, 8, 19–21, 28–31,
46–48, 57–60, 66–69,
72–78, 80–81, 83–85,
92, 147, 148–154
antisaccade task, 60, 77–79,
87–88, 147, 150, 154,
155
backwards, 67
early responses, 16, 19, 21,
25–31, 43–46, 48,
69–71, 72, 131, 138,
148
intersaccadic interval (ISI),
66, 68–70, 72
latencies, 5, 6, 9, 16, 22, 30,
31, 44, 60, 62, 70, 130,
146–147, 151, 154
saccadometer, 151–155, 157
Sandhoff disease, 150
scales for encoding
probability, 131
scanning, 66, 68, 72, 92–93
schizophrenia, 150
SD (standard deviation), 10
serotonin, 89–90
Sherrington, Charles, 49, 110
signal-to-noise ratio, 59, 65
simulations, 15, 27–29, 55,
72, 119, 121–127,
129–130, 138–139,
154
Monte Carlo, 26, 126
smooth pursuit, 20–21
Spinoza, Baruch, 111
ST, 22–23, 42, 44–45, 65, 70,
115
standard deviation, 10
step task, 4, 16, 31, 57, 64, 76,
154–155
stimulus factors, 64
stochastic theory, 119
stop-signal delay, 75
stop signals, intrinsic, 76
stop units, 74–78, 85
striate cortex, 7
subjective probabilities, 36,
37–38, 131, 135
, 22
Index 179
subjective probability, 36–38,
100, 109, 131–133,
135–137, 155
superior colliculus, 6, 48, 77,
81, 83–85, 86, 87
supplementary eye field, 7, 87
tasks
antisaccade, 60, 77–79, 87–88,
147, 150, 154, 155
binary choice, 52
countermanding, 74–76, 78,
88, 91, 155
gap, 50, 58, 131
Go/NoGo, 52, 76–78, 85, 88,
155
precedence, 56, 75, 92, 139
Wheeless, 16–17, 75–77, 78,
85, 100, 150
task-switching, 51
telencephalon, 80
Tolstoy, 111
urgency, 26, 44–46, 63–64
utility, 63–64, 90, 103–104,
134
Van den Berg model, 122
variance, 10, 23–24, 59, 117,
125–127, 146, 156
Venn, John, 36
visual cortical areas, 7, 87
visual stimuli, 2, 5, 17–18,
65, 66, 70, 86, 151,
153
Wheeless task, 16–17, 75–77,
78, 85, 100, 150
Wilde, Oscar, 100
Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 109
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