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Contributors
Yusuf M. Agamawi Department of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery,
Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, USA
Otolaryngology and Facial Plastic Surgery Associates, Fort Worth, TX, USA
SpenceerR.Anderson Department of Orthopedic and Plastic Surgery, Boonshoft
School of Medicine at Wright State University, Dayton, OH, USA
Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Wright State University Boonshoft
School of Medicine, Dayton, OH, USA
Luka Bahra College of Osteopathic Medicine, Rocky Vista University,
Englewood, CO, USA
Ryan F. Brown Department of Head and Neck Surgery/Facial Plastic and
Reconstructive Surgery, Denver, CO, USA
Department of Head and Neck Surgery/Facial Plastic Surgery, The Permanente
Medical Group, Santa Rosa, CA, USA
RicardoL.Carrau Department of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery, The
Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
DavidChan Department of Surgery, Section of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck
Surgery, The University of Chicago Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
Century Ear, Nose, and Throat—Head and Neck Surgery, Orland Park, IL, USA
Section of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery, University of Chicago,
Chicago, IL, USA
JasonCohn, DO, FACS Cohn Plastic Surgery, PC, Smithtown, NY, USA
Sunrise ENT and Facial Plastics, Lindenhurst, NY, USA
Yadranko Ducic Otolaryngology and Facial Plastic Surgery Associates, Fort
Worth, TX, USA
Eli Gordin Department of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery, UT
Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
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xii
Contributors
MarcH.Hohman Baghdad Diplomatic Support Center, Baghdad, Iraq
Department of Surgery, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences,
Bethesda, MD, USA
Sameep P. Kadakia Department of Orthopedic and Plastic Surgery, Boonshoft
School of Medicine at Wright State University, Dayton, OH, USA
Premier Comprehensive Head and Neck Oncology and Reconstructive Surgery
Program, Miami Valley Hospital, Dayton, OH, USA
Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Wright State University
Boonshoft College of Medicine, Dayton, OH, USA
ScottKohlert CHRISTUS Health, Tyler, TX, USA
Seung Lee Department of Otolaryngology, Virginia Commonwealth University
Medical Center, Richmond, VA, USA
Department of Otolaryngology, Virginia Commonwealth University Hospital,
Richmond, VA, USA
Thomas S. Lee Department of Otolaryngology, Virginia Commonwealth
University Medical Center, Richmond, VA, USA
Department of Otolaryngology, Virginia Commonwealth University Hospital,
Richmond, VA, USA
Wesley Mcilwain Otolaryngology and Facial Plastic Surgery Associates, Fort
Worth, TX, USA
Fatemeh Mirzamohammadi Department of Orthopedic and Plastic Surgery,
Boonshoft School of Medicine at Wright State University, Dayton, OH, USA
Arya Namin Otolaryngology and Facial Plastic Surgery Associates, Fort
Worth, TX, USA
Adrian A. Ong Otolaryngology and Facial Plastic Surgery Associates, Fort
Worth, TX, USA
SammyOthman, MD Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department
of Surgery, Northwell Health, New York, NY, USA
Kaitlynne Pak Boonshoft School of Medicine at Wright State University,
Dayton, OH, USA
Laura Petrauskas Section of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery,
University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
Kevin Quinn Department of Otolaryngology, Ohio State University Medical
Center, Columbus, OH, USA
Department of Otolaryngology, Virginia Commonwealth University Hospital,
Richmond, VA, USA
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Contributors
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David A. Rengifo Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery,
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
MasoudSaman DallasFaceDoc, PLLC, Dallas, TX, USA
RajaSawhney Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University
of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
BritneyScott Department of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery, Kettering
Health, Kettering, OH, USA
DerekSheen Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, University
of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
AlexanderP.Simko University of Florida School of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA
CollinSmith Department of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery, Kettering
Health, Kettering, OH, USA
FiyinSokoya Wellstar Health Systems, Atlanta, GA, USA
UgochukwuUmeh Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
NimaVahidi Department of Otolaryngology, Virginia Commonwealth University
Medical Center, Richmond, VA, USA
Department of Otolaryngology, Virginia Commonwealth University Hospital,
Richmond, VA, USA
AuroraG.Vincent Eisenhower Army Medical Center, Fort Gordon, GA, USA
WeitaoWang Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, University
of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
KathrynBradburnWie Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery,
University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
Sunishka M. Wimalawansa Department of Orthopedic and Plastic Surgery,
Boonshoft School of Medicine at Wright State University, Dayton, OH, USA
Cheryl Yu Department of Otolaryngology, Virginia Commonwealth University
Medical Center, Richmond, VA, USA
Department of Otolaryngology, Virginia Commonwealth University Hospital,
Richmond, VA, USA
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Part I
Facial Reconstruction
t.me/Dr_Mouayyad_AlbtousH
Local Flaps
AdrianA.Ong, UgochukwuUmeh, andAryaNamin
Introduction
Local ap reconstruction is utilized when simple primary closure cannot be
achieved, when there is excessive tension on the wound, or when primary closure
would result in signicant functional decits. These are especially important to consider in the reconstruction of the head and neck, which are the most visible structures of the body. A local ap is described as a skin and subcutaneous tissue that is
transferred from its original position to an area adjacent to the ap. Due to the
robust blood supply of the face, many local ap options are available and proper
execution of the ap is dependent on the specic defect location, available adjacent
tissue, patient-specic factors, and surgeon comfort. Local aps can be classied by
their vascular supply, composition, or method of transfer and design. Successful
local ap reconstruction relies on an organized and methodical approach to defect
analysis to determine the optimal method of reconstruction.
1
Anatomy
To successfully reconstruct facial defects with local aps, a rm understanding of
cutaneous anatomy is imperative (Fig.1.1). The most supercial layer of the skin is
the epidermis. Immediately underneath this is the dermis, which consists of the
supercial papillary and deeper reticular layers. The vascular supply is composed of
a supercial dermal plexus between the reticular and papillary dermis and a deep
A. A. Ong (*) · A. Namin
Otolaryngology and Facial Plastic Surgery Associates, Fort Worth, TX, USA
U. Umeh
Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2024
F. Sokoya, A. G. Vincent (eds.), Manual of Head and Neck Reconstruction,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-65999-7_1
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4
r
Subdermal
Musculocutaneous
artery
A. A. Ong et al.
vascular plexus
Superficial
vascular
plexus
Epidermis
Papillary dermis
Reticular dermis
Subcutaneuous laye
Muscle
Fig. 1.1 Schematic of the skin/soft tissue layers. A random ap is depicted being elevated in the
subcutaneous layer, and shows the vascular supply of the ap through the subdermal plexus
“subdermal” plexus between the reticular dermis and the subcutaneous tissue, the
latter allows for random pattern donor aps.
As mentioned earlier, aps can be classied in many ways, including by their
vascular supply. The majority of local aps are based on a random vascular supply
and rely on the subdermal plexus and not a named skin perforator [1]. These aps
depend on the vascular perfusion pressure. To ensure ap survival, the perfusion
pressure through the ap must exceed the critical closing pressure of the capillary
vessels and prevent distal ap ischemia [2]. Historically, it was thought that a widerbased ap would allow for increased length; however, a wider ap that only increases
the number of included vessels without changing the perfusion pressure will not
affect the length of the viable ap. Alternatively, aps can also be classied by their
vascular supply; for example, axial aps are named for a specic direct cutaneous
artery. Specic axial aps include the paramedian forehead ap and the pectoralis
major myocutaneous ap, which are further discussed in Chaps. 2 and 7, respectively.
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1 Local Flaps
5
Flaps are also classied by the method of transfer and design, which is a more
commonly used classication when discussing local aps [3]. An advancement ap
depends on the advancement of adjacent tissue along a linear axis to close the
defect. This type of ap often creates standing cutaneous deformities or “dog-ear”
deformities, which must be addressed. Rotational aps pivot around a xed point
along an arc to close the defect. Oftentimes, local aps in the head and neck have
elements of both rotation and advancement aps. Transposition aps refer to a ap
that is elevated and mobilized from adjacent donor tissue and transposed over an
incomplete bridge of skin to close the primary defect. During transposition of the
donor tissue, the secondary defect created the donor site is closed primarily.
Examples of transposition aps include the rhombic ap, bilobed ap, and Z-plasty.
Finally, interpolated aps are similar to transposition aps; however, the donor tissue is transposed over a complete bridge tissue, creating a cutaneous pedicle and
requiring pedicle division at a second stage. An example of this type of ap is the
paramedian forehead ap, which is further discussed in Chaps. 2 and 3.
An understanding of the facial anatomy is also important when considering local
ap reconstruction. The relaxed skin tension lines (RSTL) reect the intrinsic orientation of tension and relaxation of the skin at rest and represent areas along which
scars should be placed [4]. The lines of maximum extensibility, which run perpendicular to the RSTLs, are also considered when designing local aps and signify the
direction in which closure should be performed with the least tension. In addition to
RSTLs, scars can also be hidden within the borders of aesthetic subunits. These
borders represent imaginary lines along which scars can hide inconspicuously,
based on how the eye processes faces as block images that are spatially organized
[5]. The major aesthetic subunits of the face include the forehead, eyes, nose, lips,
chin, ears, and neck. These units can be further subdivided based on less discrete
borders. For example, the nose is further subdivided into the dorsum, sidewall, tip,
ala, columella, and soft tissue facet or soft tissue triangle [6].
Indications/Contraindications
The major indication for local ap reconstruction in the head and neck is reconstruction after Mohs micrographic surgery for cutaneous malignancies for which
primary closure is either inadequate or would result in functional decits. Local
aps may also be used to reconstruct other types of cancer defects as well as traumatic wounds.
An absolute contraindication to local ap reconstruction includes positive margins at the site of the defect. In addition, proper patient selection is important as
local aps taken from areas of scar or that have undergone radiation may have compromised vascular supply, and other reconstructive options should be considered.
Relative contraindications to local ap reconstruction include the risk of hemorrhage and current smoking status. Patients on anticoagulant therapy are at increased
risk of perioperative and postoperative bleeding, which can impair the perfusion
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pressure and thus the viability of the local ap [7]. In general, smokers are at
increased risk of complications and should be advised [8]. Those who continue to
smoke are at increased risk of ap necrosis.
A. A. Ong et al.
Preoperative Planning
The preoperative assessment is essential for optimal reconstruction with a local ap
[9, 10]. The defect should be analyzed carefully and characterized. This includes the
determination of skin color and thickness, defect composition and thickness, and
involvement of subunits. If the defect involves greater than 50% of an aesthetic
subunit, consideration can be given to resection of the entire subunit to improve the
aesthetic outcome. Landmarks that must not be distorted or placed under signicant
amounts of tension, such as the hairline, eyelid, nasal ala, or nasolabial fold, should
be identied. Areas of recruitment are assessed for adjacent tissue that is easily
accessible and has sufcient laxity to reconstruct the defect. Donor site considerations include prior operations or trauma as well as prior radiation. Flaps are then
designed such that the resultant scar will rest along RSTLs or along aesthetic subunit borders. Before any incisions are created, it is important to review outcomes
after the planned adjacent tissue transfer: Will there be any limiting anatomic and
physiologic restraints and are there consequences of tissue movement? If the
planned local ap results in untoward outcomes, other ap options can be considered. Following these steps will result in an organized approach to defect analysis
and optimal ap choice, leading to excellent function and aesthetic outcomes.
Instrument/Equipment Set
In general, a soft tissue instrument set is used for dissection. Depending on the location of the defect, additional equipment may be required, such as a basic oculoplastic or septorhinoplasty surgical set. Monopolar and bipolar cautery, skin hooks, and
ne dissecting scissors are utilized to assist in ap elevation. Closure of the donor
and recipient sites is achieved with a combination of deep dermal dissolvable sutures
and non-absorbable skin sutures.
Flap Design/Surgical Technique/Ducic Pearls
Advancement Flap
Advancement aps rely on the recruitment of adjacent tissue that is moved along a
linear axis to close a defect. Examples of advancement aps include primary fusiform closure, unilateral unipedicle and bilateral unipedicle (H-plasty) advancement
aps, A-T or O-T ap, V-Y or Y-V ap, and subcutaneous tissue pedicle island ap.
Examples can be seen in Fig.1.2.
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ba
1 Local Flaps
In both unilateral and bilateral unipedicle advancement aps, the ap pedicle
width is determined by the operative defect size; however, the ap width should be
slightly wider than the defect size as the ap width decreases slightly with advancement in the defect size. The ap length is dictated by the pliability of nearby tissue.
As a test, if the defect cannot be closed with forceful pushing, another ap option
a
7
b
c
Fig. 1.2 Examples of local advancement aps. (a) Closure of an ellipse, which represents the
simplest advancement ap. (b) A-T advancement ap. (c) V-Y advancement ap. (d) Unilateral
advancement ap. (e) Bilateral advancement ap
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Bilateral advancement flap
A. A. Ong et al.
c
V to Y
d
Unilateral advancement flap
e
Fig. 1.2 (continued)
should be considered. The primary tension is located at the donor site closure and
lies perpendicular to the incision. Incisions are designed such that they lie within or
parallel to horizontal creases or along borders of natural landmarks, which is useful
for defects in the forehead. Typically, a unipedicle advancement ap is designed
with a ratio of defect width to ap length of 1:3, with larger defects requiring a
bilateral unipedicle advancement ap [11]. Bilateral unipedicle advancement aps
are particularly advantageous in the closure of “central” lip and chin defects as the
two aps “pull” equally, reducing the potential for tissue distortion and midline
structure deviation. In both instances, a standing cutaneous deformity is created at
the base of the ap and often requires the removal of the Burow triangles.
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