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Figure 4.9. Example of a product bar code used on
pharmaceuticals for positive drug identification to reduce
medication errors. (Courtesy of Baxter Healthcare Corporation.)
It is important that the instructions for use by the patient be clearly
understood. This may require that the pharmacist add words of clarity to
the labeled instructions. For example, instead of “Take two tablets daily,”
the directions might indicate whether the two tablets are to be taken at
once or at separate and specified times. In addition, if the patient or
caregiver has difficulty with the language, verbal reinforcement may be
required.
Refer to the prescription shown in Figure 4.4A to identify any errors
and/or omissions in the following prescription label.
Error: Drug name incorrect.
Omission: Directions incomplete.
Addition: “by mouth” is added to the patient directions for clarity.
NOTE: There would be a serious question of whether the patient
received the correct medication.
Additional examples of errors and omissions are presented in the
practice problems at the end of the chapter.
Use of Roman Numerals on Prescriptions
Roman numerals are occasionally used in prescription writing to
designate quantities, such as the (a) quantity of medication to be dispensed
and/or (b) quantity of medication to be taken by the patient per dose.
The student may recall the eight letters of fixed values used in the
Roman system:
The student also may recall that the following rules apply in the use of
Roman numerals:
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1. A letter repeated once or more repeats its value (e.g., xx = 20; xxx =
30).
2. One or more letters placed after a letter of greater value increases the
value of the greater letter (e.g., vi = 6; xij = 12; lx = 60).
3. A letter placed before a letter of greater value decreases the value of
the greater letter (e.g., iv = 4; xl = 40).
4. Use the simplest choice among the possible options. For instance, to
indicate the number 60, “lx” would be preferred over “xxxxxx.”
Capital or lowercase letters may be used. Dotting the lowercase “i” or
placement of a horizontal line above the “i” with the dot atop serves to
avoid misinterpretation. A “j” may be used as the final “i” in a sequence
(e.g., viij). Additional examples are as follows:
When Roman numerals are used, the tradition of placing the numerals
after the term or symbol generally is followed (e.g., capsules no. xxiv;
fluid ounces xij).
Use of Abbreviations and Symbols
Although reduced by the transition to e-prescribing, the use of
abbreviations remains on prescriptions and medication orders. Many
prescription abbreviations are derived from the Latin through its historical
use in medicine and pharmacy, whereas others have evolved through
prescribers’ use of writing shortcuts. A list of some of these abbreviations
is presented in Table 4.3. Unfortunately, medication errors can result from
the misuse, misinterpretation, and illegible writing of abbreviations and
through the use of ad hoc, or made-up, abbreviations. The use of a
controlled vocabulary, a reduction in the use of abbreviations, care in the
writing of decimal points, and the proper use of leading and terminal zeros
have been urged to help reduce medication errors.5–
7
Table 4.3 Selected Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Symbols
Used In Prescriptions and Medication Orders
a–c
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a
The abbreviations set in boldface type are considered most likely to appear on prescriptions.
It is suggested that these be learned first.
b
In practice, periods and/or capital letters may or may not be used with the abbreviations.
Some abbreviations, acronyms, and symbols have medication error risks associated with their
use. Therefore, the Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP) and the Joint Commission
(formerly the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations [JCAHO]) have
issued a list of items prohibited from use and others considered for prohibition (see text).
Refs.5,7 These designated items are not included in Table 4.3, with the exception of hs, I.U.,
MIU, subQ, AZT, and HCTZ, which are included for instructional purpose due to their
remaining use in practice.
c
A database of acronyms and abbreviations related to the US Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) may be found at https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/fda-acronyms-abbreviations/acronyms-
abbreviations-file-download.
d
Muldoon HC. Pharmaceutical Latin. 4th Ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1952.
e
A fluid dram (flʒ) is 1/8th of a fluid ounce (29.57 mL) or ≈3.69 mL; however, when the
dram symbol is written in the Signa portion of a prescription, the prescriber may intend the
interpretation to be “teaspoonful.” Similarly, when a half-ounce symbol (f℥ss) is indicated in
the Signa, a “tablespoonful” or 15 mL may be intended.
Among the specific recommendations to help reduce medication errors
arising from poorly written, illegible, or misinterpreted prescriptions and
medication orders are the following5–7:
A whole number should be shown without a decimal point and
without a terminal zero (e.g., express 4 milligrams as 4 mg and not as
4.0 mg).
A quantity smaller than one should be shown with a zero preceding
the decimal point (e.g., express two-tenths of a milligram as 0.2 mg
and not as .2 mg).
Leave a space between a number and the unit (e.g., 10 mg and not
10mg).
Use whole numbers when possible and not equivalent decimal
fractions (e.g., use 100 mg and not 0.1 g).
Use the full names of drugs and not abbreviations (e.g., use
phenobarbital and not PB).
Use USP designations for units of measure (e.g., for grams, use g and
not Gm or gms; for milligrams, use mg and not mgs or mgm).
Spell out “units” (e.g., use 100 units and not 100 u or 100 U since an
illegible U may be misread as a zero, resulting in a 10-fold error, i.e.,
1000). The abbreviation I.U., which stands for “International Units,”
should also be spelled out so it is not interpreted as I.V., meaning
“intravenous.”
Certain abbreviations that could be mistaken for other abbreviations
should be written out (e.g., write “right eye” or “left eye” rather
than using o.d. or o.l., and spell out “right ear” and “left ear” rather
than using a.d. or a.l.).
Spell out “every day” rather than using q.d.; “every other day”
rather than q.o.d; “four times a day” rather than q.i.d; and “three
times a week” rather than t.i.w. to avoid misinterpretation.
Avoid using d for “day” or “dose” because of the profound
difference between terms, as in mg/kg/day versus mg/kg/dose.
Integrate capital or “tall man” letters to distinguish between “lookalike” drug names, such as AggraSTAT and AggreNOX,
hydrOXYZINE and hydrALAZINE, and DIGoxin and DESoxyn.
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Amplify the prescriber’s directions on the prescription label when
needed for clarity (e.g., use “Swallow one (1) capsule with water in
the morning” rather than “one cap in a.m.”).
The Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP) regularly publishes a
list of abbreviations, symbols, and dose designations that it recommends
for consideration for discontinuance of use.
5
The portions of the prescription presenting directions to the pharmacist
(the Subscription) and the directions to the patient (the Signa) commonly
contain abbreviated forms of English or Latin terms as well as Arabic and
Roman numerals. The correct interpretation of these abbreviations and
prescription notations plays an important part in pharmaceutical
calculations and thus in the accurate filling and dispensing of medication.
Although described fully in Chapter 7, it should be noted here that
when appearing in the Signa, the symbol ʒi, 5 mL, and the
abbreviation tsp. are each taken to mean “one teaspoonful,” and the
symbol ℥ss, 15 mL, and the abbreviation tbsp. are each taken to mean
“one tablespoonful.”
AUTHORS’ NOTE:
Some abbreviations used in this chapter may
appear only infrequently in practice and are
included here for instructional purposes.
Examples of prescription directions to the pharmacist:
a. M. ft. ung.
Mix and make an ointment.
b. Ft. supp. no xii
Make 12 suppositories.
c. M. ft. cap. d.t.d. no. xxiv
Mix and make capsules. Give 24 such doses.
Examples of prescription directions to the patient:
a. i cap. p.o. q.i.d. p.c. & h.s.
Take 1 capsule by mouth 4 times a day after each meal and at
bedtime.
b. ii gtt. o.d. qAM
Instill 2 drops in the right eye every morning.
c. 2 tabs. stat 1 tab. q6h × 7 d.
Take 2 tablets immediately; then take one 1 tablet every 6 hours for
7 days.
CASE IN POINT 4.1
A pharmacist received the following prescription, which requires the
correct interpretation of abbreviations prior to engaging in calculations,
compounding, labeling, and dispensing.
Medication Scheduling, Medication Adherence,
and Medication Disposal
Medication scheduling may be defined as the frequency (i.e., times per
day) and duration (i.e., length of treatment) of a drug’s prescribed or
recommended use. Some medications, because of their physical, chemical,
or biological characteristics or their dosage formulations, may be taken
just once daily for optimum benefit, whereas other drug products must be
taken two, three, four, or more times daily for the desired effect.
Frequency of medication scheduling is also influenced by the patient’s
physical condition and the nature and severity of the illness or condition
being treated. Some conditions, such as indigestion, may require a single
dose of medication for correction. Other conditions, such as a systemic
infection, may require multiple daily, around-the-clock dosing for 10 days
or more. Long-term maintenance therapy for conditions such as diabetes
and high blood pressure may require daily dosing for life.
For optimum benefit of the medications prescribed, it is incumbent on
the patient to adhere to the prescribed dosage regimen.
Medication adherence (formerly referred to as compliance) indicates
a patient following the instructions for taking the medication prescribed,
including the correct dose, dosing frequency, and duration of treatment.
Medication nonadherence is a patient’s failure to adhere or comply with
the instructions.
Patient nonadherence may result from a number of factors, including
unclear or misunderstood directions, undesired side effects of the drug that
discourage use, lack of patient confidence in the drug and/or prescriber,
discontinued use because the patient feels better or worse, economic
reasons based on the cost of the medication, absence of patient counseling
and understanding of the need for and means of compliance, confusion
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