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C. T. Penrose and M. P. Bolognesi
a b
6
. Fig. 6.4 a–c Postoperative radiographs after limited hardware removal and TKA using computer navigation
a spatial frame or magnetic growing rod application after
osteotomy followed by knee arthroplasty in a staged
manner after completion of correction in all planes,
removal of xation, likely with a time interval to allow
for pin tract healing. Fixation of osteotomies can also
involve intramedullary nails, external xation, and plates
c
and screws on the femoral, tibial, or both sides of the
knee joint (Sculco etal. 2019).
Preoperative templating, intraoperative navigation
applications, patient-specic instrumentation (PSI),
and/or robotic platforms may provide utility in determining which deformities are correctable through the

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6
joint and which require osteotomy (Catani etal. 2012;
Denjean etal. 2017). It is important to consider deformities of the tibia and femur separately when both exist,
and authors have described a successful correction with
osteotomy performed either staged or in the same setting as the arthroplasty (Catonné etal. 2019a; Catonné
etal. 2019b; Demir etal. 2018).
> Doing deformity correction and arthroplasty in the
same setting has the obvious benet of only a single
surgery. It is a technically challenging procedure with
risks of complications related to increased blood loss
and cement integration into an osteotomy site which
could interfere with healing (Sculco etal. 2019).
Location and integrity of hardware on radiographs
should include the number and trajectory of screws and
plates, whether or not hardware is broken and if there
are any bone defects. Review of prior imaging may be
helpful as well as operative reports.
> It can be helpful to know what hardware is present in
case it needs to be removed either in part or in full and
to be informed about prior surgical approaches, espe-
cially if a lateral parapatellar arthrotomy was per-
formed to prevent further devascularization of the
patella.
options including subvastus, quadriceps snip, tibial
tubercle osteotomy, banana peel of the patellar tendon,
and lateral parapatellar arthrotomy, which can each
play a useful role in providing adequate exposure in certain cases (In et al. 2009; Lahav and DiMaio 2007;
Lizaur-Utrilla etal. 2015; Lonner etal. 1999; Lahav and
Hofmann 2007). Range of motion should also be carefully assessed and documented, as patient expectations
and surgical goals should be tailored to a patient’s preoperative range of motion.
6.4 Intraoperative Considerations
Planning ahead and having all equipment available
including burrs, hardware removal sets with necessary
screwdrivers can eliminate intraoperative delays and
reduce operative time. The diagnosis of PTA has been
linked to both longer operative time and higher infection rates and costs (Dexel etal. 2016; Kester etal. 2016;
Ge etal. 2018).
> Preoperative workup for occult infection is important
especially in instances of prior infection, open fractures or traumatic arthrotomies, history of wound
healing issues postoperative, and radiographic ndings concerning osteomyelitis.
Performing a medial approach after an extensive lateral parapatellar arthrotomy compromises additional
geniculate arteries and could lead to osteonecrosis of
the patella. The condition of the soft tissues needs to be
carefully evaluated including the location of prior scars.
> It is generally recommended that the most lateral inci-
sion be used, and if existing incisions are not compat-
ible with surgical exposure then connecting at 90° or
greater angles is recommended.
Preoperative consultation with a plastic surgeon is
sometimes advisable when skin quality or integrity is in
question and local tissue aps including medial gastrocnemius or even free aps may be necessary for coverage.
The condition of the extensor mechanism should be
evaluated with the patient’s ability to perform a straight
leg raise. Patella alta and baja and extensor lag should
be noted. Chronic patellar subluxations or dislocations
and patella fractures can be encountered in the PTA
patient, thus the subvastus approach and lateral retinacular release may need to be considered (Hudson etal.
2003; In etal. 2009; Houdek etal. 2015). The workhorse
medial parapatellar approach to the knee may not
always be the best option in the post-traumatic arthritic
patient and surgeons should have familiarity with other
Baseline erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and
C-reactive protein (CRP) should be obtained in any
post-traumatic patient with any concern for infection,
and if either is high, aspiration can yield additional
information. In some cases, it may be prudent to remove
the hardware in a staged fashion and to obtain intraoperative cultures to exclude infection, prior to proceeding
with TKA (Lizaur-Utrilla etal. 2015; Pinter etal. 2020).
This approach may be advisable when extensive hardware removal is required, prominent hardware may be
contributing to symptoms, or when infection is suspected or has been conrmed. TKA in the PTA patient
can be more technically demanding and may require
additional resources including techniques, equipment,
and implants that many arthroplasty surgeons may not
routinely use for uncomplicated primary knee arthroplasty (Dexel etal. 2016; Weiss etal. 2003a). Implants
more typically associated with revision knee arthroplasty including cones, sleeves, augments, stems, and
higher levels of constraints should be available and used
when deemed necessary. Small bone defects can be lled
with cement technique, sometimes including a screw
used as rebar.
> In general, the lowest level of constraint and hard-
ware that allows for a stable construct and joint

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C. T. Penrose and M. P. Bolognesi
should be used on a case-by-case basis to achieve
excellent long-term functional outcomes for the
patient (Weiss etal. 2003a; Martin-Hernandez et al.
2018; Pancio etal. 2017).
It has been proposed that this should impact reimbursement in a bundled payment model (Kester etal.
2016). Signicant improvements in pain control, range
of motion, and functional outcome occur after knee
arthroplasty in PTA patients, and thus, despite higher
Similar to knee arthroplasty for other indications,
cementless designs can be considered in PTA patients
and may be an attractive option for younger patients but
must be used judiciously and only for patients with adequate bone quality with careful attention to precision of
bone cuts (Buechel 2002).
risks, it remains the optimal treatment for end-stage
degenerative changes in these patients (Bedi and Haidukewych 2009; Saleh et al. 2016; Weiss etal. 2003b).
Knee stiffness is more common and manipulation under
anesthesia is more frequently required postoperatively
for arthrobrosis in this patient population (Lunebourg
etal. 2015; Weiss etal. 2003b; Saini and Trikha 2016). In
> Cemented arthroplasty is generally the preferred
6
technique for achieving early xation with aseptic
loosening being a relatively uncommon cause of fail-
ure in this patient population (Brockman etal. 2020;
Bala etal. 2015).
one large institutional series, the rate of revision for
PTA patients was 25% at 15-year follow-up (Houdek
etal. 2016). There are some instances with certain fractures in certain patients where TKA may be appropriate
acutely after the time of injury (Benazzo etal. 2014; Parratte etal. 2011); however, the focus of this chapter is on
Unicompartmental arthroplasty, including medial,
lateral, or patellofemoral, can be useful in the posttraumatic patient setting when only part of the knee
TKA in the PTA patient who generally develops degenerative disease years after an injury and has often had
surgical treatment shortly after the time of injury.
joint is affected, but evaluation of the ligaments and cartilage surfaces in the other compartments is necessary
before proceeding in order to reduce the risk of subse-
6.6 Conclusion
quent conversion to TKA (Buechel 2002; Konan and
Haddad 2016; Lustig etal. 2012).
While many patients with soft tissue injuries around the
knee and fractures of the distal femur, proximal tibia,
> Technological adjuncts including GPS-based, com-
puter navigation, patient-specic instrumentation, or
robotics may have helpful applications, particularly in
settings where intramedullary guidance is not possible or more difcult due to existing hardware or
deformity (Kuo et al. 2011; Manzotti et al. 2012;
Manzotti etal. 2014).
and patella will eventually develop post-traumatic
arthritis if given enough time, not all will require TKA
(Scott etal. 2015; Wasserstein etal. 2014). The rate of
PTA undoubtedly varies by numerous factors including
type and severity of injury, age, genetics, and treatment-
related variables. For patients who develop signicant
pain and negative impact on their quality of life as a
result of end-stage degenerative changes associated with
These adjuncts may obviate the need for extensive
hardware removal, although the modalities that are
based on preoperative imaging may encounter difculties due to metal artifacts. A surgeon should be familiar
with these techniques and using them for the rst time in
a more challenging case is not advised.
PTA, TKA is the optimal treatment for reducing pain
and restoring function. Thorough preoperative workup
is especially important to evaluate candidacy for arthroplasty and differentiating effects of PTA from other etiologies like infection, nonunion, pathology in the hip or
spine. For those patients likely to benet from TKA, a
surgical plan should be created, with backup plans,
which can range from resembling a routine primary
6.5 Outcomes
total or partial knee arthroplasty to complex-staged
reconstruction involving revision components and other
> Outcomes after total knee arthroplasty (TKA) per-
formed for post-traumatic arthritis (PTA) are inferior
compared to those for primary osteoarthritis with
regard to infection, deep vein thrombosis, implant
survival (revision), patient function (including stiff-
ness), and quality of life (Brockman etal. 2020; Bala
et al. 2015; Lunebourg et al. 2015; Houdek et al.
2016).
less frequently used techniques. Outcomes after TKA
performed for PTA are well established to be inferior
compared to those for primary osteoarthritis; however,
signicant improvements for these patients do occur
after knee arthroplasty, and thus despite higher risks, it
remains the optimal treatment for many PTA patients.
Surgeons and patients should both be aware of and have
a discussion regarding the risks/benet prole of arthro-

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plasty in the PTA patient population, customized as
much as possible to the patient’s individual circumstances and goals.
Take-Home Messages
5 Evaluation of post-traumatic arthritis begins
with a thorough history, physical examination,
and radiographs and may include an investigation for occult infection in selected patients.
5 Other etiologies of pain must be considered
(spine, hip, infection, nonunion).
5 Technical considerations may include working
around or removing hardware, utilizing technological adjuncts such as navigation, as well as
having revision-type implants to address either
bone and/or ligamentous deciencies (e.g.,
metaphyseal xation, semi-constrained liners).
5 Complications including infection, stiffness/
arthrobrosis, and revision may be higher, but
benets still often outweigh the risks, and shared
decision- making with the patient to proceed
with surgery when indicated is imperative.
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(2019a) Same-stage total knee arthroplasty and osteotomy for
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Catonné Y, Sariali E, Khiami F, Rouvillain JL, Wajssz A, Pascal-
Moussellard H (2019b) Same-stage total knee arthroplasty and
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Ge DH, Anoushiravani AA, Kester BS, Vigdorchik JM, Schwarzkopf
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Post-Septic Arthritis
MatanOzery, IsaacSchultz, TejbirS.Pannu, JesusM.Villa,
andCarlosA.Higuera
Contents
7.1 Introduction – 68
7.2 Denition andDiagnosis ofPost-Septic Arthritis – 68
7.3 Approach toSeptic Arthritis Depending ontheStage
oftheJoint Disease – 69
7.3.1 Acute Septic Arthritis onaNative Knee andWithout Degenerative
Disease – 69
7.3.2 Quiescent/Cured Septic Arthritis – 69
7.3.3 Evolutive Septic Arthritis withEnd Degenerative Disease – 70
7
7.4 Importance ofAntibiotic-Loaded Cement forTKA
inPost-Septic Arthritis – 70
7.5 TKA inPost-Septic Arthritis – 71
7.5.1 Clinical Outcomes: One-Stage andTwo-Stage – 71
7.5.2 Complication andRevision Rates ofTKA – 72
7.6 Special Considerations forTKA inPost-Septic Arthritis – 72
References – 73
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of Springer Nature 2022
E. Hansen, K.-D. Kühn (eds.), Essentials of Cemented Knee Arthroplasty,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-63113-3_7

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M. Ozery et al.
7.1 Introduction
erative joint disease after septic arthritis. As compared
to the traditional arthrodesis, TKA can result in the fol-
Septic arthritis is a major cause of morbidity and mor-
lowing:
tality in the adult patient population. The incidence of
septic bacterial arthritis is estimated to be around 0.7%
of all hospital admissions (Donatto 1998), of which
40–50% are infections of the knee (Kelly 1975). The
5 Increased range of motion (ROM)
5 Improved pain
5 Better quality of life and function
mortality rates in patients who develop a septic joint
range from 5% to 25% (Ferrand etal. 2016; Kaandorp
et al. 1997), and there is a strong association between
septic arthritis and poor functional clinical outcomes
> In a clinical setting, post-septic knee arthritis can
present either as an acute, quiescent, or evolutive
infection.
(Kaandorp etal. 1997). Recently, a signicantly higher
mortality rate has been reported in septic arthritis
patients in the setting of infective endocarditis (Anis
etal. 2020). Patients who have an underlying joint dis-
7
ease, or have undergone joint arthroplasty are 5–10
times more likely to develop an infection in their joint
(Favero et al. 2008; Smith et al. 2006). The two most
common ways that a knee becomes infected are through
hematogenous spread or direct inoculation.
Hematogenous spread (septicemia/bacteremia) is the
more common cause, and may be difcult to recognize
in a patient who does not have an obvious underlying
It is imperative to choose the appropriate treatment
option, and set goals with tailored treatment depending
on these different scenarios, highlighting the importance
of surgical decision-making based on the details of each
individual case. In the current chapter, our objective is
to review the literature on the management of septic
knee with variable presentations and its associated clinical outcomes and the utility, efcacy, and safety of TKA
in patients with native septic joint disease. We also briey
discuss the development of periprosthetic joint infection
in TKA after native septic arthritis treatment.
joint pathology (Kaandorp etal. 1997). Other risk factors for joint infection include, among others, the following:
7.2 Denition andDiagnosis ofPost-Septic
Arthritis
5 Either advanced or very young age
5 Diabetes mellitus
5 Skin infection
5 Endocarditis
5 Rheumatoid arthritis (Kaandorp etal. 1995)
The inammatory processes triggered by infection often
lead to extensive articular tissue damage of the knee,
damage which must be addressed through emergent
treatment of the infection.
Treatment of the septic knee always includes an antibiotic regimen, which is selected for the bacteria cultured from the joint or the most likely pathogen for the
site (Mathews etal. 2010). The most common pathogen
is Staphylococcus aureus, which may also be penicillin-
resistant (Kaandorp etal. 1997). Depending on the type
of infection (acute or chronic), the antibiotic regimen is
mostly combined with a technique to remove the pathogenic tissue from the joint, whether through needle aspiration, irrigation, and debridement (I & D), or
arthroscopy (Mathews etal. 2010). I & D can be done in
one of the two ways: either arthroscopically or through
open management via arthrotomy.
In cases in which the knee infection is unresolved for
a prolonged period of time, joint degeneration ensues.
Total knee arthroplasty (TKA) has emerged as the treatment of choice in these patients with end-stage degen-
Post-septic arthritis is dened as the arthritis which
develops secondary to hematogenous seeding of a joint
during a transient or persistent bacteremia (Goldenberg
1998). When bacteria enter the joint space, an acute
inammatory synovitis is triggered and the synovial
membrane reacts with a proliferative lining-cell hyperplasia (Goldenberg 1998). The lack of a basement membrane in synovial tissue allows for a rapid spread of
microorganisms throughout the joint (Margaretten
etal. 2007). An inux of acute and chronic inammatory cells leads to the release of inammatory factors
which degrade the joint cartilage, and if untreated,
within several days, irreversible subchondral bone loss
can occur (Goldenberg 1998).
> Any microbial pathogen can cause septic arthritis;
however, Staphylococcus and Streptococcus are the
most common infecting organisms (Klippel et al.
2001).
Most cases of septic arthritis are mono-articular and
occur in large peripheral joints such as the knee, which
accounts for 50% of cases (Goldenberg 1998; Klippel
etal. 2001). Septic arthritis can be diagnosed through a
positive synovial uid gram stain or culture, or by a presumptive diagnosis through analysis of purulent syno-

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7
vial uid with a leukocyte count (Klippel etal. 2001;
Miller etal. 2018).
> A synovial uid aspiration with a leukocyte count
>50,000cells/mL is considered to be diagnostic of a
septic joint, however, lower counts do not exclude the
diagnosis (Miller etal. 2018).
Serum inammatory markers such as C-reactive protein
and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) might be useful to detect infection as well. The diagnosis of septic
knee requires a strong clinical suspicion depending on
the patient presentation, and physical examination, further supported by the results of synovial uid assay. Differential diagnosis includes gout exacerbation or
pseudogout ares that can be differentiated using synovial uid crystal analysis of uric acid or calcium pyrophosphate presence, respectively. Additionally, some
inammatory arthropathies including rheumatoid
arthritis can mimic a septic arthritis, however, in this
condition the aspiration of synovial uid is generally
aseptic.
7.3 Approach toSeptic Arthritis
Depending ontheStage oftheJoint
Disease
In general, septic arthritis can present in three clinical
settings as discussed below.
When comparing the short-term outcomes (e.g., bleeding, adverse events), arthroscopic I & D has shown
favorable outcomes compared to open techniques. The
literature is divided over infection recurrence and restoration of functional outcomes. While some authors have
found no signicant difference between the two techniques, others have presented arthroscopic I & D to have
more favorable outcomes than an open approach in
these areas (Aïm et al. 2015; Faour etal. 2019; Johns
et al. 2017). I & D is used as an ideally curative, less
functionally limiting treatment for a native septic joint,
however, if it does not successfully eradicate the infection or if the joint damage progresses, then TKA, or in
worst cases, arthrodesis or amputation may be necessary
(Abram et al. 2020). Historically, I & D of the septic
joint has demonstrated favorable outcomes with less soft
tissue damage and invasiveness than the alternative
treatments (Abram etal. 2020; Faour etal. 2019; Shukla
etal. 2014), however, more recently it has been suggested
that the failure rate of I & D is higher than previously
realized.
7.3.2 Quiescent/Cured Septic Arthritis
This type of septic arthritis involves previous septic knee
whose resolution is uncertain after a long asymptomatic
period (Bauer et al. 2010). A history of septic knee
arthritis often leads to long-term consequences which
limit functional use of the joint, requiring further corrective treatment.
7.3.1 Acute Septic Arthritis onaNative
Knee andWithout Degenerative
Disease
This scenario describes an acute infection of the joint,
with no other preexisting pathology. The initial management often includes both joint irrigation and debridement and a course of postoperative antibiotics. However,
in case of gonococcal arthritis, an appropriate antibiotic
therapy sufces for majority of the cases. Initial hospitalization is recommended until 1–2days after resolution of symptoms. Follow-up synovial aspiration to
conrm infection eradication is the key in management
of gonococcal arthritis (Shirtliff and Mader 2002). If
the patient does not respond to the initial treatment, further invasive management is indicated.
> I & D is a relatively efcacious initial surgical treat-
ment in these patients with acute infection of a native
knee (Abram et al. 2020). I & D can either be per-
formed arthroscopically or via open arthrotomy.
> Permanent joint damage occurs in 50% of cases of
septic arthritis of which the majority occurs in the
knee (Goldenberg 1998; Kelly 1975).
Thus, the range of motion and function of the knee may
progressively deteriorate. Also, the infective microorganism may still reside in quiescence in these cases
(Bauer etal. 2010; Sultan etal. 2019). In both circumstances, total knee arthroplasty may be indicated.
In case of quiescent infection, one-stage total knee
arthroplasty with extensive synovectomy has been most
commonly performed, as suggested by the literature
(Bauer etal. 2010). Preoperative joint biopsy is mandatory to screen for any quiescent infections, however, the
false-negative rate for this procedure is high (Bauer etal.
2010). To conrm the presence of infection, intraopera-
tive synovial uid, tissue, and bone samples are recommended. (Bauer et al. 2010). The antibiotic therapy
should then be adapted depending on these culture
results (Bauer etal. 2010). These steps are key to preventing prosthetic failure of the TKA in these post- septic
cases where the infective status of the knee is unclear.

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M. Ozery et al.
One-stage TKA begins with removal of all infected
tissue and copious lavage of the remaining tissue, and
often involves bone cuts. The wound is then packaged
with sterile swabs and bandaged, as well as released
from the tourniquet. The surgical team then re-scrubs,
re-drapes, and gets a new set of instruments, and begins
the second part of the procedure. The tourniquet is reinated and the joint is prepared and the prosthesis is
then implanted in the knee, completing the procedure
(Bauer etal. 2010).
inserted. Depending on the culture sensitivity results,
antibiotics should be selected and administered at least
for 6weeks after the rst stage. For patients with negative cultures, empiric, broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy
should be considered.
The appropriate time for implantation is determined
based on conrmation of the infection eradication. This
is supported by the absence of clinical signs of infection,
and gradually decreasing inammatory markers like
ESR and CRP values. Before second stage, some advocate at least a 2-week antibiotic holiday. The second
> In one-stage TKA, it is important that the infective
organism is identied through aspiration prior to surgery, and organism-specic antibiotics are administered perioperatively and loaded in the cement of the
7
prosthesis (Parkinson etal. 2011).
stage includes repeated synovectomy and removal of the
previously inserted antibiotic-loaded cement spacer
(Bauer etal. 2010). Reconrmation of the infection resolution is done intraoperatively. Tissue samples are
obtained and sent for frozen sections to measure acute
inammation evidenced by more than 5 neutrophils per
The amount of antibiotic mixed in the cement should
not compromise its mechanical properties (Hinarejos
etal. 2015).
high-powered eld in 5 power elds (Kwiecien et al.
2017). In the next step, the new prostheses are implanted
and re-debridement and irrigation are performed.
While TKA (one-stage or two-stage) is indicated in
both quiescent and evolutive septic arthritis, the ques-
7.3.3 Evolutive Septic Arthritis withEnd
Degenerative Disease
tion has always risen about the safe timeline of performing TKA after septic arthritis.
This type of arthritis results in severe damage to cartilage and bone, eventually leading to functional deterioration of the knee (Bauer et al. 2010). A recent
investigation dened this arthritis as the presence of one
or more of the following criteria:
5 Clinical signs of infection (local erythema, tender-
ness, effusion, limited range of motion, or presence
of a sinus)
5 Loss of articular space on radiographic studies
5 Femoral heads or articular cartilage damage
5 Inammatory markers (C-reactive protein
[CRP] > 10 mg/dL, erythrocyte sedimentation rate
[ESR]>30mm/h)
5 Intraoperative purulence
5 Positive synovial uid or tissue cultures at the time
of rst stage of antibiotic spacer placement, if applicable (Xu etal. 2019)
> In the setting of evolutive septic knee, two-stage total
knee arthroplasty has been the procedure of choice
(Bauer etal. 2010; Xu etal. 2019).
The rst stage comprises total synovectomy with knee
joint resection. The debridement of infected and necrotic
tissue is performed. Synovial uid, deep tissue, and bone
samples are obtained for cultures. Joint irrigation is
done with 5–9L of an antiseptic solution. After this, an
antibiotic-loaded articulating cement spacer is then
> Recent data suggest that while there is no ideal opti-
mal time point after treatment for septic arthritis for
TKA to be performed, it has been demonstrated that
waiting at least 1year is relatively safe (Sultan etal.
2019; Tan etal. 2019).
7.4 Importance ofAntibiotic-Loaded
Cement forTKA inPost-Septic Arthritis
In both the one-stage and two-stage approaches to postseptic TKA, when implanting the prosthesis, antibioticloaded bone cement (ALBC) is commonly used. In
ALBC, the antibiotic elutes through pores in the cement
to eradicate intra-articular organisms and prevent prosthetic infection (Hinarejos etal. 2015). Commonly, aminoglycosides and vancomycin are used to treat
gram-negative and gram-positive species, respectively
(Hinarejos etal. 2015). Although high-dose formulation
ALBC has been used for a long time for infection prophylaxis, there are many shortcomings, especially with
cemented TKA:
5 First, there is an inverse relationship between the
amount of antibiotic infused with the cement and
the compressive and tensile strength of it (Hinarejos
etal. 2015). For the antibiotic to elute the cement, a
certain degree of porosity is required, and this
increase in porosity weakens the mechanical strength

Post-Septic Arthritis
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71
7
of the cement, ultimately decreasing the longevity of
the joint xation (Hinarejos etal. 2015).
5 Second, the antibiotic can leave the joint and can be
detected systemically, leading to side effects of the
specic antibiotic, hypersensitivity reactions, and
antibiotic resistance development because of the slow
release, exposing the infecting organism to initially
insufcient levels of antibiotic (Hinarejos etal. 2015)
> In general, considering the high-risk prole of post-
septic arthritis cases, the use of ALBC in TKA is recommended in all cases.
There are multiple commercial premixed ALBCs available (Jiranek etal. 2006). The majority of them are composed of aminoglycosides in combination with either
tobramycin or gentamicin. The major limitation of
these commercial ALBCs is the inability to tailor antibiotics for specic organisms. Thus, surgeons still continue
to hand-mix antibiotics to the cement in order to target
a particular infecting organism. There is no evidence
comparing commercially premixed and hand- mixed
cement as such in the setting of post-septic arthritis.
However, some evidence on this subject comes from the
management of periprosthetic joint infection. Chang
etal. (2013) tested the following two premixed ALBCs
against hand-mixed ALBCs:
5 Palacos R+G: 1g gentamicin in 40g polymethyl-
methacrylate (PMMA)
5 Simplex P: 1g tobramycin in 40g PMMA
While gentamicin-loaded premixed ALBC showed an
equal or longer duration of antibacterial action against
different bacteria, tobramycin-loaded premixed ABLC
did not show any advantage over hand-mixed ABLC
(Chang etal. 2013).
7.5 TKA inPost-Septic Arthritis
7.5.1 Clinical Outcomes: One-Stage
andTwo-Stage
7.5.1.1 One-Stage TKA
Multiple previous reports have shown benets of onestage TKA in septic arthritis patients with previous history of sepsis which was considered resolved (Bauer
etal. 2010; Lee etal. 2002). Bauer etal. demonstrated
the eradication of joint infection in 95% of quiescent
septic arthritis patients who underwent one-stage
arthroplasty. These favorable outcomes were also
reected in the mean postoperative International Knee
Score (IKS) of 91/100 and the mean postoperative IKS
functional score of 80/100 (Bauer etal.
2010). On treat-
ing 18 out of 20 patients with previous sepsis around the
knee with one-stage TKA, Lee etal. showed an improvement in the mean Knee Society scores for pain from 39
points preoperatively to 91 points postoperatively (Lee
etal. 2002).
> While these reports show favorable outcomes with the
one-stage approach in quiescent septic arthritis, a
high rate of PJI after arthroplasty was found in a
recent investigation of 62 native knees with quiescent
infection which were managed using this approach
(Seo etal. 2014).
At a mean follow-up of 6.1years, as much as 9.7% (6/62)
of these cases developed infection. Interestingly, organisms similar to those cultured previously regrew at the
time of re-infection (Seo etal. 2014). Thus, more recent
studies have considered two-stage arthroplasty in these
patients as a rewarding alternative (Anagnostakos etal.
2016; Fleck etal. 2011; Xu etal. 2019).
7.5.1.2 Two-Stage TKA
> Two-stage arthroplasty has been a preferred proce-
dure in the setting of evolutive septic arthritis in old
investigations (Bauer etal. 2010). However, as mentioned before, this approach is also now considered as
a substitute for quiescent septic arthritis.
In terms of clinical outcomes, the Knee Society (KS)
score (Jenny and Diesinger 2011) has been used in the
literature as an indicator of clinical function. Nazarian
et al. (2003) studied 14 knees with recurrent septic
arthritis or chronic periarticular osteomyelitis in which
a two-stage approach was used (Nazarian etal. 2003).
With this approach, average Knee Society scores markedly improved from the preoperative (46) to the postoperative period (89). In the same cohort, the postoperative
average knee functional score was determined to be 78
(Nazarian et al. 2003). Alike results were reported by
Bauer etal. (2010) using a two-stage TKA to treat septic
arthritis (Knee Society Pain scores and Knee Society
Function scores: both 80 out of 100) (Bauer etal. 2010).
Depending on the stage of organism growth cycle,
quiescent infections have been shown to achieve better
clinical outcomes, as compared to evolutive infections
(Bauer etal. 2010). Two-stage approaches using articulating cement spacers molded intraoperatively for
infected knees have been associated with favorable postoperative clinical outcomes. The mean Knee Society
Pain and mean Knee Society Function scores exhibited
an improvement from preoperative 41 and 43 to postoperative 85 and 83, respectively, at the latest follow-up
(Shaikh etal. 2014). Clinical outcomes for TKA using
impregnated cement spacers in post-septic arthritis have
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