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Fig. 11.46 Paraphimosis. Oedema of the foreskin behind an encircling
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constriction ring caused by the foreskin not being replaced–in this case, after
catheterisation.
• Are there any other symptoms of sexual dysfunction,
including reduced libido, problems achieving orgasm, premature ejaculation or failure to ejaculate?
Consider possible precipitating events: for example, relationship difficulties or trauma. Assess cardiovascular, neurological
and psychiatric comorbidities, as well as take drug history.
If the patient has never had an erection, they may have primary
ED due to an anatomical abnormality. Secondary ED is more
common and may be psychological or organic in aetiology.
Psychological ED may have a precipitating event, and loss of
erection occurs in some but not all situations; early-morning
erections or erections with masturbation usually remain unaffected. Organic ED affects all erections and is often associated
with medical comorbidities, including diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, peripheral vascular disease,
endocrine disorder or neurological disorder. ED is a common
early symptom of metabolic syndrome and should precipitate
screening for cardiovascular disease and diabetes.
If erections are painful or associated with deformity, the likely
diagnosis is Peyronie’s disease. This is a fibrotic condition of the
penile shaft, of unknown aetiology, producing painful curvature,
narrowing or shortening of the corpora cavernosa with erection.
If the problem is a prolonged erection (priapism), establish the
duration and whether it is painful. Particular attention should be
paid to drug history, history of perineal trauma or past medical
history of haematological, neurological or oncological disease.
Painful (low-flow or ischaemic) priapism is a urological emergency which requires urgent treatment to prevent permanent ED.
The physical examination • 265
Past medical history
Ask about previous urological procedures, including neonatal
surgery. Record relevant general surgical procedures, particularly
pelvic operations that may contribute to lower urinary tract
symptoms, or ED. Cardiovascular, endocrine, neurological, renal
and psychiatric diseases may predispose or contribute to both
urinary tract symptoms and ED.
Drug history
Ask about previous urological drug treatments and obtain a full
list of all medications and drugs taken recreationally. In particular,
note drugs such as:
• diuretics: contribute to urinary symptoms
• alpha-blockers: may cause retrograde ejaculation
• antihypertensive agents: may cause erectile dysfunction
• vasoactive drugs, such as alprostadil: may result in a pro-
longed erection
• antidepressants or antipsychotics: may affect urinary and
sexual function.
Social history
Smoking, drinking alcohol and recreational drugs can affect
fertility and sexual function. Smoking is a significant risk factor for
urological cancers.
The physical examination
Ensure privacy. Use a warm, well-lit room with a moveable light
source. Explain what you are going to do and why it is necessary, and offer a chaperone. Record the chaperone’s name; if
the offer is refused, record the fact. Apply alcohol gel and put on
gloves. Allow the patient privacy to undress.
Ask the patient to stand and expose the area from the lower
abdomen to the top of the thighs. Initially, examine the patient
standing before asking them to lie on their back to re-examine
any scrotal swellings while lying down.
Skin
Examination sequence
• Look in turn at the groin, skin creases, perineum and scrotal
skin for redness, swellings or ulcers. Note the hair
distribution.
• If you see any swellings in the groin, palpate these and define
them using ‘SPACESPIT’ (see Box 3.8 in the 14th edition).
A general examination may reveal a lack of secondary sexual
characteristics suggestive of hypogonadism (p. 231). There may
be alopecia or an infestation. Patients who shave their pubic hair
may have dermatitis or folliculitis (infection around the base of the
hairs), causing an irritating red rash. Intertrigo (infected eczema)
11
266 • THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
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occurs in the skin creases, and lymphadenopathy may stem
from local or general causes.
Scrotal oedema can be caused by systemic or local diseases.
Heart and liver dysfunction may lead to significant genital
oedema, as may nephrotic syndrome and lymphoedema due to
pelvic lymphadenopathy.
Penis
Examination sequence
• Look at the shaft and check the position of the urethral
opening to exclude hypospadias (urethra opening partway
along the shaft of the penis; see Fig. 15.11A in the 14th
edition).
• Palpate the shaft for fibrous plaques (usually on the dorsum).
Palpate any other lesions to define them.
• Retract the prepuce and inspect the glans for red patches or
vesicles.
• Always draw the foreskin forward after examination to avoid a
paraphimosis.
• Take a urethral swab if your patient has a discharge or is
having sexual health screening.
Normal enlarged follicles may mimic warts. Numerous uniform,
pearly penile papules around the corona of the glans are normal.
Warts, sebaceous cysts, or a hard plaque of Peyronie’s disease may occur on the shaft and phimosis, adhesions, in flammation or swellings on the foreskin or glans may be noted.
Scrotum
Examine the scrotum with the patient standing. Then ask them to
lie down if you find swelling you cannot ‘get above’. Ask the
patient whether they have any genital pain. If they are cold or
apprehensive, the dartos muscle contracts, and you will not be
able to palpate the scrotal contents properly.
Examination sequence
• Inspect the scrotum for redness, swelling or ulcers, lifting it to
inspect the posterior surface.
• Note the position of the testes and any paratesticular swelling
and tenderness.
• Palpate the scrotum gently, using both hands. Check that
both testes are present. If they are not, examine the inguinal
canal and perineum, checking for undescended or ectopic
testes.
• Place the fingers of both your hands behind each testis, in
turn, to immobilise it, and use your index finger and thumb to
palpate the body of the testis methodically. Feel the anterior
surface and medial border with your thumb and the lateral
border with your index finger (Fig. 11.47).
• Check the size and consistency of the testis. Note any
nodules or irregularities. Measure the testicular size in centimetres from one to the other.
• Palpate the spermatic cord with your right hand. Gently pull
the testis downward and place your fingers behind the neck
Fig. 11.47 Palpation of the testis.
of the scrotum. Feel the spermatic cord and within it the vas,
like a thick piece of string.
• Decide whether a swelling arises in the scrotum or from the
inguinal canal. If you can feel above the swelling, it originates
from the scrotum; if you cannot, the swelling usually originates in the inguinal region (Fig. 11.48).
• Check any inguinoscrotal swelling for a cough impulse and
auscultate for bowel sounds.
• Place the bright end of a torch against a scrotal swelling
(transillumination; Fig. 15.9). Fluid-filled cysts allow light transmission, and the scrotum glows bright red. This is an inconsistent sign, which does not differentiate a hydrocoele from
other causes of intrascrotal fluid, such as a large epididymal
cyst. With thick-walled cysts, transillumination may be absent.
The right testicle is usually closer to the inguinal canal than the
left, but the testes may be highly mobile (retractile). A normal
testis is 5 cm long. The normal epididymis is barely palpable,
except for its head (Fig. 11.49), which feels like a pea separate
from the superior pole of the body of the testicle.
Sebaceous cysts are common in the scrotal skin. If you can
get above a scrotal swelling, it is a true scrotal swelling. If not, it
may be a varicocoele, hydrocele or inguinal hernia that has
descended into the scrotum (see Fig. 11.45).
Varicocoele
A varicocoele is a dilatation of the veins of the pampiniform
plexus and feels like a ‘bag of worms’ in the cord when the
patient is standing and should disappear when he lies down. If it
does not, particularly on the left where the gonadal (testicular)
vein inserts into the renal vein, consider a retroperitoneal mass
such as renal cancer compressing the testicular veins.
Hydrocoele
These are swellings caused by fluid in the tunica vaginalis. They
are usually idiopathic but may be secondary to inflammatory
conditions or tumours. They can be limited to the scrotum or
extend into the inguinal canal.
The physical examination • 267
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Fingers can ‘get above’ mass Fingers cannot ‘get above’ mass
Fig. 11.48 Testing for scrotal swellings. A It is possible to ‘get above’ a true scrotal swelling. B This is not possible if the swelling is caused by an inguinal
hernia that has descended into the scrotum. A hydrocele may also extend into the inguinal region.
BA
11
Fig. 11.49 Palpation of the epididymis. The epididymis is readily felt only
at the top of the testis.
Epididymal cyst
Swellings of the epididymis that are felt to be completely separate from the body of the testis are epididymal cysts. They are
isolated and adherent to the epididymis alone; they transilluminate and are never malignant. Painful swellings at the superior pole of the testis or adjacent to the head of the epididymis,
are usually due to torsion of a paramesonephric duct remnant,
the hydatids of Morgagni. This is more common in infancy and is
often associated acutely with a blue discoloration on the skin,
referred to as the ‘blue dot sign’.
Testicular tumour
Testicular tumours cause painless, hard swellings of the body of
the testis. Around 15% of tumours may occur close to the rete
testis and may give rise to epididymal swelling and pain.
Fig. 11.50 Left testicular torsion. There is shortening of the cord with
retraction of the testis and global swelling of the scrotal contents. Refer the
patient urgently to a surgeon for scrotal exploration.
Epididymitis
Inflammation of the epididymis produces painful epididymal
swelling, most often caused by an STI in young patients, or a
coliform urinary infection in the elderly.
Testicular torsion
A retracted or high-lying testicle, accompanied by acute pain and
swelling, occurs in testicular torsion (Fig. 11.50). A palpable twist
268 • THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
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in the cord may be identified behind the testis on examination
although patients are often in too much pain to allow full
examination.
Single testis
This may be due to incomplete testicular descent of the
‘missing’ testis through the inguinal canal or an ectopic testis in
the groin. Ask about p revious surgery for a testicular tumour or
testicular maldescent. Unilateral testicu lar atrophy may result
from a mumps infection, torsion, vascular compromise after
inguinal hernia repair, or from a late orchidopexy for undescended testis.
Bilateral testicular atrophy
This suggests primary, or secondary, hypogonadism (p. 231) or
primary testicular failure. Look for hormonal abnormalities or
signs of anabolic steroid usage and check the development of
secondary sexual characteristics (see Fig. 15.20).
Prostate
Ask the patient to lie in the left lateral position.
Examination sequence
• Perform a rectal examination (p. 111).
• Palpate the prostate through the anterior rectal wall.
• Note any tenderness.
• Assess size, symmetry and consistency. Is it hard or boggy?
• Feel for any nodules.
• Withdraw your finger. Give the patient tissues to clean
themself and privacy in which to get dressed.
The prostate is normally smooth, rubbery, non-tender and
about the size of a walnut. It has defined margins with an
indentation, or sulcus, between the two lateral lobes. Sometimes
the seminal vesicles are felt above the prostate.
Tenderness or soft ‘bogginess’ suggests prostatitis or prostatic abscess.
Prostate cancer may cause a discrete nodule, a craggy mass
or obliteration of the midline sulcus, and the prostate may feel
fixed to the lateral pelvic sidewall.
Investigations
The relevant urological investigations depend on the clinical
problem revealed on history and examination. First-catch urine
can be tested for both Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria
gonorrhoeae from a single specimen using nucleic acid amplification tests, and this should be performed for all patients presenting with urethritis or acute scrotal pain suspected to be due
to epididymo-orchitis. Scrotal ultrasound is the gold standard for
confirming the clinical diagnosis of scrotal swelling or pain, with
the exception of testicular torsion.
When prostate cancer is suspected, a prostate-specific antigen (PSA) blood test should be requested. PSA is raised in
prostate cancer but also increases with age, prostatic volume,
following prostatic trauma (including prostate examination or
urinary tract instrumentation) and urinary tract infection. If the
PSA is elevated, a multiparametric MRI scan of the prostate may
be considered with subsequent prostate biopsy to investigate for
prostate carcinoma.
Early-morning testosterone should be measured in all patients
with erectile dysfunction to assess for hypogonadism. Serum alphaf-etoprotein, beta-HCG and lactate dehydrogenase are tumour
markers that may be raised in the presence of testicular cancer.
OSCE example 1: Breast examination
Ms McIntyre, 27 years old, presents with a 6-week history of a lump in her right breast.
Please examine her breast
• Introduce yourself and clean your hands.
• Obtain verbal consent for the examination from the patient.
• Offer a chaperone.
• Ask her to undress to the waist and sit on the edge of the bed.
• Inspect for asymmetry, skin or nipple changes, or obvious lumps.
• Ask her to put her hands on her hips and push in while you look for changes in the breast.
• Ask her to lie on the couch with her upper body at 45 degrees. Palpate her breasts, noting the characteristics of any lumps.
• Examine her axillae and supraclavicular fossae.
• Thank the patient and clean your hands.
Summarise your findings
There is a firm, mobile, non-tender lump about 2 cm in diameter at 11 o’clock in the right breast, 5 cm from the nipple. There are no overlying skin changes,
and the lump is not tethered. I could feel no lymphadenopathy in the neck or axilla.
Suggest a diagnosis
One possible diagnosis is breast cancer. The differential includes fibrocystic disease, a breast cyst or an abscess.
Suggest investigations
Triple assessment: clinical assessment, ultrasound scan and ultrasound-guided core biopsy.
Investigations • 269
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OSCE example 2: Scrotal pain history
Mr Atkins, 20 years old, presents to the emergency department with scrotal pain.
Please take a focused history
• Introduce yourself and clean your hands.
• Obtain verbal consent to take a history from the patient.
• Ask an open question about why this person has come to the emergency department.
• Explore the symptoms offered at presentation–in this case, scrotal pain:
• time of onset and duration
• severity of pain
• exacerbating/relieving factors
• constant or intermittent nature
• radiation to groin or loin
• any precipitating event such as trauma
• associated urinary symptoms, urethral discharge, swelling, fever, nausea or weight loss
• sexual history
• past medical history, including undescended testes
• drug history
• social history.
Summarise your findings
The patient reports a gradual onset of aching testicular and scrotal pain with some associated urethral discharge and fever.
Suggest a differential diagnosis
This history is most suggestive of epididymo-orchitis. The differential includes testicular torsion and testicular cancer.
Suggest initial investigations
Ultrasound may confirm epididymo-orchitis, but if testicular torsion cannot be excluded on history and examination, urgent testicular exploration is required.
11
OSCE example 3: Gynaecological examination
Samantha Turner is a 38-year-old presenting for her routine cervical smear test.
Please talk to the patient and take a cervical smear and perform a pelvic examination from the manikin.
• Introduce yourself to the patient
• Confirm it is the correct patient
• Explain the procedure and obtain verbal consent
• Obtain focused history to allow completion of the request form (e.g. LMP, previous smear and results)
• Ensure chaperone present
• Ask patient to empty bladder
• Allow privacy to remove bottom half of clothing, lie on examination couch and cover with modesty blanket
• Ensure adequate lighting and equipment available
• Clean hands and apply gloves
• Ask chaperone assistant to help with fixative and check it with you
• Inspect the perineum
• Insert speculum and inspect vagina and cervix
• Take cervical smear
• Remove speculum
• Perform bimanual examination
• Thank patient and clean hands
• Give privacy to change and ensure all paperwork and records are completed
Presentation to examiner
On inspection, the perineum was normal. On speculum examination, there was no discharge, and the vaginal walls were healthy. The cervix was normal with
round cervical os and small ectopy. There was no contact bleeding on taking the cervical smear. On bimanual examination, the uterus was anteverted, mobile,
non-tender and normal size. There were no adnexal masses, the abdomen was non-tender, and neither ovary could be palpated. In summary, the pelvic
examination was normal.
Neeraj Dhaun (Bean)
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David Kluth
The renal system
12
Anatomy and physiology 272
The history 272
Common presenting symptoms 272
Past medical history 277
Drug history 277
Family history 277
Social history 278
The physical examination 278
General appearance 278
Assessment of fluid balance 279
Abdominal examination 280
Targeted examination of other systems 281
Interpretation of the findings 281
Investigations 281
Urinalysis 281
Investigation of renal function 282
OSCE example 1: renal history 284
OSCE example 2: renal examination 285
Integrated examination sequence for renal disease 286
272 • THE RENAL SYSTEM
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Anatomy and physiology
The kidneys lie posteriorly in the abdomen, retroperitoneally on
either side of the spine at the T12–L3 level, and are 11–14 cm
long (Fig. 12.1). The right kidney lies 1.5 cm lower than the left
because of the liver. The liver and spleen lie anterior to the kidneys. The kidneys move downwards during inspiration as the
lungs expand.
Together, the kidneys receive approximately 25% of cardiac
output, and account for nearly 10% of basal metabolic rate. Each
kidney contains about 1 million nephrons, each comprising a
glomerulus, proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule, and
collecting duct (Fig. 12.2). Urine is formed by glomerular filtration,
modified by complex processes of secretion and reabsorption in
the tubules and then enters the calyces and the renal pelvis.
The primary functions of the kidneys are:
• Excretion of waste products of metabolism, such as urea and
creatinine
• Maintenance of salt, water, and electrolyte homeostasis
• Regulation of blood pressure via the renin–angiotensin-
aldosterone system
• Endocrine functions related to erythropoiesis and vitamin D
metabolism
The renal capsule and ureter are innervated by T10–12/L1
nerve roots; pain from these structures is felt in these
dermatomes.
The bladder acts as a reservoir. As it fills, it becomes ovoid and
rises out of the pelvis in the midline towards the umbilicus,
behind the anterior abdominal wall. The bladder wall contains a
layer of smooth muscle, the detrusor, which contracts under
parasympathetic control, allowing urine to pass through the
urethra (micturition). The conscious desire to micturate occurs
when the bladder holds approximately 250–350 mL of urine. The
male urethra runs from the bladder to the tip of the penis and has
three parts: prostatic, membranous and spongiose (Fig. 12.3).
Afferent
arteriole
Efferent
arteriole
Renal
artery
Renal
vein
Glomerulus
Loop
of
Henle
Collecting
tubule
Distal
convoluted
tubule
Proximal
convoluted
tubule
Thickwalled
segment
Thin-walled
segment
Ureter
Fig. 12.2 A single nephron.
The female urethra is much shorter, with the external meatus
situated anterior to the vaginal orifice and behind the clitoris
(Fig. 12.4). Two muscular rings acting as valves (sphincters)
control micturition:
• The internal sphincter is at the bladder neck and involuntary.
• The external sphincter surrounds the membranous urethra
and is under voluntary control; it is innervated by the pudendal nerves (S2–4).
The anatomy and physiology of the prostate are covered in
more detail on page 268.
Costovertebral angle
11th rib
12th rib
Kidney
Fig. 12.1 The surface anatomy of the kidneys from the back.
The history
Renal disease may be asymptomatic, or present with nonspecific symptoms, such as lethargy or breathlessness. It is
usually only after initial investigation that the history-taking can be
focused on the possible renal causes.
Common presenting symptom s
Dysuria
Dysuria (pain or discomfort during urination) is a common
symptom of urinary tract infection (UTI). There is usually associated urinary frequency, urgency and suprapubic discomfort
The history • 273
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Fibrous capsule
Renal
pyramids
Renal
columns
Cortex
Medulla
Internal sphincter
Prostate
External sphincter
Membranous urethra
Spongiose urethra
Fig. 12.3 The male urinary tract.
Kidney
Renal papilla
Minor calyx
Major calyx
Renal pelvis
Ureter
Bladder
Detrusor muscle
Prostatic urethra
Ureteric orifice
External
urethra
(cystitis). Other causes include urethritis and acute prostatitis
(which may be associated with severe perineal or rectal pain).
Ask about:
• Systemic upset with fever and suprapubic discomfort. Pyelonephritis is suggested by a history of significant fever
(>38.0
C), rigors, vomiting and flank pain. There may not
always be symptoms of a preceding UTI.
• Symptoms of urine outflow obstruction (slow flow, hesitancy,
incomplete emptying, dribbling, nocturia).
• History of sexual contacts.
Loin pain
Severe loin pain is usually due to ureteric obstruction; renal
calculi are the most common cause. The pain often comes in
waves and is described as ‘colicky’. The patient is unable to find
a comfortable position and will move around the bed (unlike a
patient with peritonism, who lies still).
Ask about:
• Location of the pain: Is it just in the loin (pelvic/upper ureter
obstruction), or does it radiate into the testicle or labium
(lower ureter obstruction)?
• Presence of fever, rigors and dysuria: these may suggest
infection
• Previous episodes of loin pain
Loin pain may also occur due to bleeding from a renal or
ureteric tumour or due to infection. Non-renal causes of loin pain,
such as a leaking aortic aneurysm (in older patients with vascular
12
Detrusor muscle
Ureteric orifices
Internal urethral sphincter
External urethral sphincter
Urogenital diaphragm
Fig. 12.4 The female urinary tract.
Ureter
Peritoneum
Rugae
Bladder neck
Urethra
External urethral orifice
274 • THE RENAL SYSTEM
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disease) and ectopic pregnancy (in women of child-bearing age),
should be considered.
Voiding symptoms
Symptoms are usually due to either bladder storage or voidingphase problems.
Ask about:
• Urgency, frequency, nocturia and urge incontinence (storage
symptoms)
• Hesitancy, poor stream, straining to void and terminal dribbling (voiding symptoms); these symptoms may be followed
by a sense of incomplete emptying
Storage symptoms are usually associated with bladder,
prostate or urethral problems, such as UTI, tumour, urethral
calculi or obstruction from prostatic enlargement, or are caused
by neurological disease, such as multiple sclerosis.
Voiding symptoms are often the result of bladder outflow
obstruction from prostatic enlargement (in men) or urethral
obstruction or genital prolapse (in women).
In women, incontinence is the most common symptom. Stress
incontinence is urine leakage with increased abdominal pressure
(such as when coughing or sneezing or due to weakened pelvic
floor muscles), and urge incontinence is the urge to pass urine
followed by involuntary leakage. These symptoms can occur
separately or together, and increase with age. Overflow incontinence occurs without warning, often on changes in position,
and is painless.
Polyuria, the passing of higher volumes of urine, has a number
of causes, including excess water intake, osmotic diuresis (as in
diabetes mellitus) and diabetes insipidus (inadequate secretion or
action of vasopressin [antidiuretic hormone, ADH]).
Oliguria (passing of less than 500 mL of urine per day) and
anuria (complete absence of urine) may be due to either very low
fluid intake, mechanical obstruction or loss of kidney function
(see later.)
Pneumaturia, passing gas bubbles in the urine, is suggestive
of a fistula between the bladder and the colon from a diverticular
abscess, malignancy or inflammatory bowel disease.
Hematuria
The presence of blood in the urine is common. It may either be
seen by the patient (visible haematuria) or be identified by urinalysis or microscopy (non-visible).
Visible haematuria
Visible haematuria will be described as pink, red or brown in
colour. Ask about previous episodes, their time course and
whether they were persistent or intermittent. Haematuria can
be due to an underlying problem anywhere along the renal tract
from the glomerulus to the bladder (Fig. 12.5). Immunoglobulin
A (IgA) nephropathy is the most common glomerular cause,
which is often preceded by a non-specific upper respiratory
tract infection. The haematuria associated with bladder
Polycystic kidney
disease
Renal
scarring
Tuberculosis
Stones
Schistosomiasis
Contamination
Renal
cancer
Glomerulonephritis
Transitional cell
cancer
Urinary tract
infection
Prostate cancer
Urethritis
Fig. 12.5 Principal sources of haematuria.
tumours is usually painless and intermittent. Thi s is the most
important cause to exclude in patients over 45 years of age
without a UTI.
Ask about:
• Loin pain, as this may indicate ureteric obstruction due to
blood, calculi, or a tumour; flank pain and haematuria may be
features of renal cell carcinoma.
• Fever, dysuria, suprapubic pain and urinary frequency, which
may indicate urinary infection.
• Family history of renal disease; polycystic kidney disease can
present with visible haematuria due to cyst rupture.
Non-visible haematuria
Non-visible (or microscopic) haematuria is a dipstick urinalysis
abnormality, with 1þ considered positive. It can indicate renal or
urinary tract disease. Non-visible haematuria in women of
reproductive age is most commonly due to contamination by
menstrual blood.
Proteinuria and nephrotic syndrome
Proteinuria is the excretion of more than 150 mg of protein in the
urine per day. It is usually asymptomatic but, if persistent, may
indicate underlying renal disease.
Nephrotic syndrome is characterised by the combination of
heavy proteinuria (>3.5 g/24 hours), hypoalbuminaemia and
oedema. Nephrotic syndrome may come on over a few weeks (as
in minimal change disease) and cause acute kidney injury (AKI), or
it can evolve over many months (as in membranous nephropathy),
giving a picture of chronic kidney disease (CKD). The most
The history • 275
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common cause of nephrotic syndrome is diabetes mellitus. Patients may notice that the urine is frothy due to the proteinuria;
hyperlipidaemia, hypercoagulability, and an increased risk of
infection may also develop.
Ask about:
• Weight loss, altered bowel habit, cough, back pain or chronic
inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease or bronchiectasis (in particular if
undertreated). The latter cause nephrotic syndrome as a
result of renal AA amyloid deposition.
• Ankle swelling (pitting oedema): Younger patients may also
notice facial swelling and puffy eyelids, especially first thing in
the morning.
• Breathlessness (pleural effusions).
• Abdominal swelling (ascites).
Acute kidney injury
AKI (Box 12.1) covers a range of presentations from relatively
mild changes in kidney function to dialysis-requiring kidney failure. The typical presentation is with a recently identified rise in
serum creatinine. AKI may have prerenal, renal or postrenal
causes (Box 12.2); there is an increased risk in patients with preexisting CKD. The history should focus on differentiating between these.
Prerenal acute kidney injury
This is almost always due to volume depletion (hypovolaemia).
Ask about:
• Fluid losses, such as vomiting, diarrhoea or bleeding, and
inadequate oral intake due to nausea or delirium.
• Recent operations or investigations that may be associated
with increased fluid losses or reduced intake (fasting, bowel
preparation).
12.1 Definition of acute kidney injury
a
RIFLE
b
AKIN
Risk
AKIN stage 1
Injury
AKIN stage 2
Failure
AKIN stage 3
Loss Renal replacement therapy
End-stage
kidney disease
a
Risk, injury, failure, loss, end-stage kidney disease
b
Acute kidney injury network
Serum creatinine criteria
Increase>50% < 0.5 mL/kg/h for
Increase>100% <0.5 mL/kg/h for
Increase>200% or serum
creatinine >350 mmol/L
(3.96 mg/dL)
for >4 weeks
Renal replacement therapy
for >3 months
Urine output
criteria
6 hours
12 hours
0.3 mL/kg/h for
24 hours or anuria
for 12 hours
–
–
• Any features of infection, such as fever, sweats, productive
cough or dysuria.
Establish whether there is an underlying condition that may
predispose to a reduction in renal blood flow.
Ask about:
• History of heart failure or liver disease.
• Recent drug prescriptions, such as those that block the
renin–angiotensin-aldosterone system (e.g. angiotensinconverting enzyme inhibitors), other antihypertensive
agents, diuretics (such as furosemide or spironolactone) and
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs); NSAIDs can
also cause intrinsic renal disease, such as interstitial nephritis
and minimal change disease
12.2 Causes of acute kidney injury
Prerenal
• Hypovolaemia (e.g. blood loss, diarrhoea, vomiting, diuresis or inade-
quate oral intake)
• Relative hypovolaemia (e.g. heart failure or nephrotic syndrome)
• Sepsis
• Drugs (e.g. antihypertensives, diuretics or non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs)
• Renal artery stenosis or occlusion
• Hepatorenal syndrome
Intrarenal
• Glomerular disease (e.g. immunoglobulin A nephropathy, systemic
vasculitis or systemic lupus erythematosus)
• Interstitial nephritis (drug-induced)
• Acute tubular necrosis/injury (may follow a prerenal cause)
• Multiple myeloma
• Rhabdomyolysis
• Intrarenal crystal deposition (e.g. urate nephropathy or ethylene glycol
poisoning)
• Thrombotic microangiopathy (e.g. haemolytic uraemic syndrome or
scleroderma renal crisis)
• Accelerated-phase hypertension
• Cholesterol emboli
Postrenal
• Renal stones (in papilla, ureter, or bladder)
• Papillary necrosis
• Ureteric or bladder transitional cell carcinoma
• Intraabdominal or pelvic malignancy (e.g. cervical carcinoma)
• Retroperitoneal fibrosis
• Blood clot
• Bladder outflow obstruction (e.g. prostatic enlargement)
• Neurogenic bladder
• Urethral stricture
• Posterior urethral valves
• Iatrogenic (e.g. ureteric damage at surgery, blocked urethral catheter)
12
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