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10 Intraoperative Neurophysiological Monitoring fortheVagus Nerve: Case Illustrations

Further Reading

Cirocchi R, Arezzo A, D’Andrea V, Abraha I, Popivanov GI, Avenia

N, et al. Intraoperative neuromonitoring versus visual nerve identication for prevention of recurrent laryngeal nerve injury in adults undergoing thyroid surgery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;1(1):CD012483. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.

CD012483.pub2.

Deniwar A, Kandil E, Randolph G.Electrophysiological neural moni-

toring of the laryngeal nerves in thyroid surgery: review of the current literature. Gland Surg. 2015;4(5):368–75.

Liddy W, Barber S, Cinquepalmi M, Lin BM, Patricio S, Kyriazidis N,

etal. The electrophysiology of thyroid surgery: electrophysiologic and muscular responses with stimulation of the vagus nerve, recurrent laryngeal nerve, and external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve. Laryngoscope. 2017;127(3):764–71. https://doi.org/10.1002/

lary.26147. Epub 2016 Jul 4.

Orloff LA.Noninvasive continuous vagal-nerve monitoring, harness-

ing the primitive laryngeal adductor reex, is on the horizon. Clin Thyroidol. 2019;31:490–2.

Randolph GW, Dralle H, et al. Electrophysiologic recurrent laryn-

geal nerve monitoring during thyroid and parathyroid surgery: international standards guideline statement. Laryngoscope. 2011;121(Suppl):1–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/lary.21119.

Voskanian IE, Kolomeĭtsev SN, Shniukov RV.Risk factors and preven-

tion of injuries to the cranial nerves in reconstructive surgery of the carotid arteries. Angiol Sosud Khir. 2005;11(2):96–103.

Wu CW, Huang TY, Randolph GW, Barczyński M, Schneider R, Chiang

FY, et al. Informed consent for intraoperative neural monitoring in thyroid and parathyroid surgery—consensus statement of the International Neural Monitoring Study Group. Front Endocrinol. 2021;12:795281. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2021.795281.

Wu CW, Randolph GW, Barczyński M, Schneider R, Chiang FY,

Huang TY, et al. Training courses in laryngeal nerve monitoring in thyroid and parathyroid surgery. The INMSG consensus statement. Front Endocrinol. 2021;12:705346. https://doi.org/10.3389/

fendo.2021.705346.

Intraoperative Neurophysiological

Данная книга находится в списке для перевода на русский язык сайта https://meduniver.com/

Monitoring fortheSpinal Accessory Nerve: Case Illustrations

JosephDiAngelo, PedroGarcia, ThomasLopazanski, AlanD.Deutsch, andAlexanderL.Shifrin

The spinal accessory nerve, cranial nerve XI, begins at the level of the medulla and travels through the neck to supply motor innervation to the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscles. The spinal accessory nerve has the potential for injury during radical head and neck surgeries resulting in weakness of the muscles supplied. Intraoperative neurophysiologic monitoring is performed by placing dual subdermal needle electrodes into the ipsilateral upper trapezius muscle on the side of dissection. A Prass probe monopolar cathode stimulator (Medtronic Xomed Inc.®; Minneapolis, MN) with

an adjacent anode reference needle electrode placed in nearby muscle is used by the surgeon to directly stimulate when the spinal accessory nerve is localized. Stimulus intensities of 0.5–4 milliamps (mA) are utilized. Free running EMG activity is also monitored from the trapezius muscle electrodes during the course of surgery for any indirect stimulation of the spinal accessory nerve. All waveforms and data were obtained utilizing Cadwell Cascade® (Kennewick, MN) intraoperative monitoring recording equipment (Figs.11.1 and 11.2).

J. DiAngelo · P. Garcia · T. Lopazanski · A. D. Deutsch Monmouth Ocean Neurology, Neptune, NJ, USA

A. L. Shifrin (*) Surgical Director of Endocrinology, Atlantic Health CentraState Medical Center, Freehold, NJ, USA

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24613-5_11

J. DiAngelo et al.

Fig. 11.1 Direct stimulation of the spinal accessory nerve in the neck at a stimulus intensity of 2.0mA and recording from the ipsilateral trapezius muscle electrodes

Fig. 11.2 Direct stimulation of the spinal accessory nerve at a stimulus intensity of 1.5mA while recording from the ipsilateral trapezius muscle electrodes

11 Intraoperative Neurophysiological Monitoring fortheSpinal Accessory Nerve: Case Illustrations

Данная книга находится в списке для перевода на русский язык сайта https://meduniver.com/

Further Reading

Lanisnik B, Zargi M, Rodi Z.Identication of three anatomical pat-

terns of the spinal accessory nerve in the neck by neurophysiological mapping. Radiol Oncol. 2014;48(4):387–92.

Lee CH, Huang NC, Chen HC, Chen MK.Minimizing shoulder syn-

drome with intra-operative spinal accessory nerve monitoring for neck dissection. Acta Otorhinolaryngol Ital. 2013;33(2):93–6.

Morris LGT, Ziff DJS, DeLacure MD.Malpractice litigation after sur-

gical injury of the spinal accessory nerve: an evidence-based analysis. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2008;134(1):102–7.

Popovski V, Benedetti A, Popovic-Monevska D, Grcev A, Stamatoski

A, Zhivadinovik J.Spinal accessory nerve preservation in modied neck dissections: surgical and functional outcomes. Acta Otorhinolaryngol Ital. 2017;37(5):368–74.

Skinner SA. Neurophysiologic monitoring of the spinal accessory

nerve, hypoglossal nerve and the spinomedullary region. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2011;11(6):587–98.

Wiater JM, Bigliani LU.Spinal accessory nerve injury. Clin Orthop

Relat Res. 1999;368:5–16.

Intraoperative Neurophysiological Monitoring fortheHypoglossal Nerve: Case Illustrations

JosephDiAngelo, PedroGarcia, ThomasLopazanski, AlanD.Deutsch, andAlexanderL.Shifrin

The hypoglossal nerve, cranial nerve XII, arises from the medulla traveling out of the skull through the hypoglossal canal into the neck and submandibular area to supply motor innervation to all the muscles of the tongue. The hypoglossal nerve has the potential to be injured during radical head and neck surgeries. The hypoglossal nerve can be monitored intraoperatively by placing dual subdermal needle electrodes into the genioglossus muscle. Indirect monitoring of the hypoglossal nerve can be performed by free running EMG

activity from the genioglossus muscle electrodes. Triggered direct stimulation of the hypoglossal nerve when localized is performed by the surgeon using a Prass monopolar cathode stimulator (Medtronic Xomed Inc.®; Minneapolis, MN) at stimulation intensities ranging from 0.5 to 4.0 milliamps (mA). All waveforms and data were obtained utilizing Cadwell Cascade® (Kennewick, WA) intraoperative monitoring recording equipment (Figs.12.1 and 12.2).

Fig. 12.1 Direct stimulation of the hypoglossal nerve recording from the genioglossus muscle at a stimulation intensity of 1.5mA

J. DiAngelo · P. Garcia · T. Lopazanski · A. D. Deutsch Monmouth Ocean Neurology, Neptune, NJ, USA

A. L. Shifrin (*) Surgical Director of Endocrinology, Atlantic Health CentraState Medical Center, Freehold, NJ, USA

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24613-5_12

Данная книга находится в списке для перевода на русский язык сайта https://meduniver.com/

J. DiAngelo et al.

Fig. 12.2 Direct stimulation of the hypoglossal nerve recording from the genioglossus muscle at a stimulation intensity of 2.0mA

Further Reading

Castilla-Garrido JM, Murgab-Oporto L. Intraoperative electro neu-

rophysiological monitoring of basal cranial nerve surgery. Rev Neurol. 1999;11:573–82.

Duque CS, Londoño AF, Penagos AM, Urquijo DP, Dueñas

JP.Hypoglossal nerve monitoring, a potential application of intraoperative nerve monitoring in head and neck surgery. World J Surg Oncol. 2013;11:225.

Randolph GW, Dralle H, Abdullah H, Barczynski M, Bellantone R,

Brauckhoff M, etal. International Intraoperative Monitoring Study Group. Electrophysiologic recurrent laryngeal nerve monitoring during thyroid and parathyroid surgery: international standards guidelines statement. Laryngoscope. 2011;11:1–16.

Skinner SA. Neurophysiologic monitoring of the spinal accessory

nerve, hypoglossal nerve and the spinomedullary region. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2011;11(6):587–98.

Walshe P, Shandilya M, Rowley H, Zahrovich A, Walsh RM, Walsh

M, etal. Use of intra-operative nerve stimulator in identifying the hypoglossal nerve. J Laryngol Otol. 2006;11:185–7.

Intraoperative Neurophysiological Monitoring forthePhrenic Nerve: Case Illustrations

JosephDiAngelo, PedroGarcia, ThomasLopazanski, AlanD.Deutsch, andAlexanderL.Shifrin

The phrenic nerves originate from the anterior rami of the third through fth cervical nerve roots bilaterally and supply motor innervation to the diaphragms. Injury to the phrenic nerve can result in paralysis of the ipsilateral diaphragm, leading to symptoms of dyspnea. As a portion of the phrenic nerve travels through the neck, there is a potential for injury to the nerve during the radical neck dissection. The phrenic nerve is monitored by using a single long 19mm subdermal needle electrode (Rochester disposable Horizon subdermal needle electrode®; LifeSync Neuro; Coral Springs, FL)

placed at the level of the diaphragm. A second reference needle electrode is placed at the xiphoid area of the sternum. A Prass monopolar cathode stimulator probe (Medtronic Xomed Inc.®; Minneapolis, MN) is used by the surgeon to directly stimulate and identify the phrenic nerve. A reference stimulator anode electrode is placed in the ipsilateral trapezius muscle. Stimulus intensities of 3.0–8.0milliamps (mA) are used. All waveforms and data were obtained utilizing Cadwell Cascade® (Kennewick, WA) intraoperative monitoring recording equipment (Figs.13.1 and 13.2).

J. DiAngelo · P. Garcia · T. Lopazanski · A. D. Deutsch Monmouth Ocean Neurology, Neptune, NJ, USA

A. L. Shifrin (*) Surgical Director of Endocrinology, Atlantic Health CentraState Medical Center, Freehold, NJ, USA

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24613-5_13

Данная книга находится в списке для перевода на русский язык сайта https://meduniver.com/

J. DiAngelo et al.

Fig. 13.1 Direct stimulation of the phrenic nerve at a stimulus intensity of 4mA

Fig. 13.2 Direct stimulation of the phrenic nerve at a stimulus intensity of 3.0mA

13 Intraoperative Neurophysiological Monitoring forthePhrenic Nerve: Case Illustrations

Further Reading

Grande-Martín A, Martínez-Moreno A, Sánchez-Honrubia R, Pardal-

Fernández J. Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring of the phrenic nerve: utility and descriptions of the technique. Innov Surg Tech. 2019;97(2):103–7.

Mazzoni M, Solinas C, Sisillo E, Bortone F, Susini G. Intraoperative

phrenic nerve monitoring in cardiac surgery. Chest. 1996;109(6):1455–60.

Sánchez-Honrubia RM, Pardal-Fernández JM. Intraoperative neuro-

physiological monitoring of the phrenic nerve: utility and descriptions of the technique. Cir Esp. 2019;97(2):103–7. https://doi.

org/10.1016/j.ciresp.2018.11.002. Epub 2018 Dec 20. PMID:

30580833.

Continuous Intraoperative

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Neuromonitoring inThyroid Surgery

RickSchneider andChe-WeiWu

Introduction

Intraoperative neural monitoring (IONM) is becoming increasingly common in thyroid surgery. Strict standardization and quality control, as well as technical improvements, have resulted in sensitivities above 90%, suggesting that IONM is good enough to detect the recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) dysfunction and predict postoperative vocal cord (VC) palsy.

With the introduction of continuous IONM (CIONM), the functionality of the entire vagus nerve (VN)-RLN axis can be continuously monitored during thyroid surgery to alert the surgeon to dangerous maneuvers and allow for nerve recovery [1]. Several clinical data demonstrate no disadvantages associated with circular dissection of the VN segment or continuous stimulation per se. Moreover, elderly patients with advanced AV block and/or pacemakers or even children can be safely monitored [2, 3]. As noted in a proof-a-concept study, CIONM resulted in parasympathetic dominance that was not offset by increased sympathetic activity. The increased parasympathetic tone did not affect cardiac or hemodynamic parameters or levels of the proinammatory cytokine TNF-α [4]. To facilitate the interpretation of clinically important quantitative electromyograms, so-called unfavorable combined electromyography (EMG) events (amplitude decrease <50%, latency increase >10%) were dened as indicative of impending traction-related damage

R. Schneider (*) Department of Visceral, Vascular and Endocrine Surgery, University Hospital, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle (Saale), Germany e-mail: rick.schneider@uk-halle.de

C.-W. Wu Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan e-mail: cwwu@kmu.edu.tw

to the RLN.If not responded to, these combined events can lead to loss of electromyographic (EMG) signal, a serious and barely reversible condition [5]. An intraoperative amplitude recovery of ≥50% from baseline reliably predicts normal early postoperative VC function after transient signal loss. The predictive accuracy of continuous stimulation is very high at 99.5% and provides a perfect basis for intraoperative decision-making for or against contralateral surgery. If signal loss persists or intraoperative recovery of EMG amplitude on the rst resection side is less than 50%, a staged approach should be established to protect these patients from the serious postoperative complication of bilateral VC palsy [6, 7].

As recently shown, CIONM reduced early postoperative and permanent VC palsy compared with intermittent IONM alone [8]. To achieve optimal predictive power, the L1, V1, R1, R2, V2, L2 concept of the INMSG and troubleshooting algorithm for loss of EMG signal must be followed [9]. Under this premise, the CIONM achieves a sensitivity of

90.9%, specicity of 99.7%, positive predictive value of

88.2%, and negative predictive value of 99.8% [8].

Prerequisites forCIONM

Evaluation ofVC Movement

For correct interpretation, intraoperative EMG ndings must be correlated with VC function. Laryngoscopy is an essential part of the preoperative examination in thyroid surgery (L1).

Concept oftheDominant Side

In planned bilateral thyroid surgery, the dominant side is the larger lobe or the lobe containing the suspected or proven lesion or hyperfunctional nodule that is the indication for surgery. In multinodular goiter, the dominant lobe is usually

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24613-5_14

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