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14 Preoperative Testing andCounseling
13. Wadden T, Butryn M, Sarwer D, Fabricatore A, Crerand C, Lipschutz P, etal. Comparison of psychosocial status in treatment-seeking women with class III vs. class I–II obesity. Surg Obes Relat Dis. 2006;2(2):138–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soard.2006.03.016.
14. Mohan P, Kalayarasan R, Anand S.Role of preoperative endoscopy in bariatric surgery. Indian J Gastroenterol. 2017;36(4):334–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12664- 017- 0772- 2.
15. Bennett S, Gostimir M, Shorr R, Mallick R, Mamazza J, Neville A.The role of routine pre­operative upper endoscopy in bariatric surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Surg Obes Relat Dis. 2016;12(5):1116–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soard.2016.04.012.
16. Wolter S, Duprée A, Miro J, Schroeder C, Jansen M, Schulze-Zur-Wiesch C, et al. Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy prior to bariatric surgery-mandatory or expendable? An analysis of 801 cases. Obes Surg. 2017;27(8):1938–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11695- 017- 2622- 9.
17. Kuper MA, Kratt T, Kramer KM, Zdichavsky M, Schneider JH, Glatzle J, etal. Effort, safety, and ndings of routine preoperative endoscopic evaluation of morbidly obese patients under­going bariatric surgery. Surg Endosc. 2010;24(8):1996–2001.
18. Al-Akwaa AM.Prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection in a group of morbidly obese Saudi patients undergoing bariatric surgery: a preliminary report. Saudi J Gastroenterol. 2010;16:264–7.
19. Winegar DA, Sherif B, Pate V, Demaria EJ.Venous thromboembolism after bariatric surgery performed by bariatric surgery center of excellence participants: analysis of the bariatric out­comes longitudinal database. Surg Obes Relat Dis. 2011;7(2):181–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
soard.2010.12.008.
20. Almarshad FM, Almegren M, Alshuaibi T, Alobaodi N, Almutawa A, Basunbl H, et al. Thromboprophylaxis after bariatric surgery. Blood Res. 2020;55(1):44–8. https://doi.
org/10.5045/br.2020.55.1.44.
21. Birkmeyer NJ, Share D, Baser O, Carlin AM, Finks JF, Pesta CM, etal. Preoperative place­ment of inferior vena cava lters and outcomes after gastric bypass surgery. Ann Surg. 2010;252(2):313–8. https://doi.org/10.1097/sla.0b013e3181e61e4f.
22. Villegas L, Schneider B, Provost D, Chang C, Scott D, Sims T, etal. Is routine cholecystec­tomy required during laparoscopic gastric bypass? Obes Surg. 2004;14(1):60–6. https://doi.
org/10.1381/096089204772787301.
23. Worni M, Guller U, Shah A, Gandhi M, Shah J, Rajgor D, etal. Cholecystectomy concomitant with laparoscopic gastric bypass: a trend analysis of the nationwide inpatient sample from 2001 to 2008. Obes Surg. 2011;22(2):220–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11695- 011- 0575- y.
24. Doulamis IP, Michalopoulos G, Boikou V, Schizas D, Spartalis E, Menenakos E, Economopoulos KP. Concomitant cholecystectomy during bariatric surgery: the jury is still out. Am J Surg. 2019;218(2):401–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjsurg.2019.02.006.
25. Warschkow R, Tarantino I, Ukegjini K, Beutner U, Güller U, Schmied BM, etal. Concomitant cholecystectomy during laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass in obese patients is not justied: a meta-analysis. Obes Surg. 2013;23(3):397–407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11695- 012- 0852- 4.
26. Kothari SN.Bariatric surgery and postoperative imaging. Surg Clin N Am. 2011;91(1):155–72.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.suc.2010.10.013.
27. Morais M, Faria G, Preto J, Costa-Maia J.Gallstones and bariatric surgery: to treat or not to treat? World J Surg. 2016;40(12):2904–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00268- 016- 3639- 2.
28. Raaff CA, Vries ND, Wagensveld BA.Obstructive sleep apnea and bariatric surgical guidelines. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2018;31(1):104–9. https://doi.org/10.1097/aco.0000000000000542.
29. Rasmussen JJ, Fuller WD, Ali MR.Sleep apnea syndrome is signicantly underdiagnosed in bariatric surgical patients. Surg Obes Relat Dis. 2012;8(5):569–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
soard.2011.06.021.
30. Catheline J, Bihan H, Quang TL, Sadoun D, Charniot J, Onnen I, et al. Preoperative car­diac and pulmonary assessment in bariatric surgery. Obes Surg. 2008;18(3):271–7. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s11695- 007- 9329- 2.
31. Thompson R. β-blocker continuation after noncardiac surgery. Arch Surg. 2012;147(5):467.
https://doi.org/10.1001/archsurg.2011.1698.
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V. Tan and A. Fridman
32. Hall TC, Pellen MG, Sedman PC, Jain PK. Preoperative factors predicting remission of type 2 diabetes mellitus after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery for obesity. Obes Surg. 2010;20(9):1245–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11695- 010- 0198- 8.
33. Eaton L, Walsh C, Magnuson T, Schweitzer M, Lidor A, Nguyen H, Steele K.On-line bariatric surgery information session as effective as in-person information session. Surg Obes Relat Dis. 2012;8(2):225–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soard.2011.10.015.
34. Gould J, Ellsmere J, Fanelli R, Hutter M, Jones S, Pratt J, etal. Panel report: best practices for the surgical treatment of obesity. Surg Endosc. 2010;25(6):1730–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s00464- 010- 1487- y.
35. Raper SE, Sarwer DB.Informed consent issues in the conduct of bariatric surgery. Surg Obes Relat Dis. 2008;4(1):60–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soard.2007.09.002.
36. Eggers C, Obliers R, Koerfer A, Thomas W, Koehle K, Hoelscher AH, Bollschweiler E.A multimedia tool for the informed consent of patients prior to gastric banding**. Obesity. 2007;15(11):2866–73. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2007.340.
37. Kaly P, Orellana S, Torrella T, Takagishi C, Saff-Koche L, Murr MM.Unrealistic weight loss expectations in candidates for bariatric surgery. Surg Obes Relat Dis. 2008;4(1):6–10. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.soard.2007.10.012.
Chapter 15
Risk Assessment andReduction
JohnColeCowling andErikWilson
15.1 Risk Assessment
Risk assessment of the bariatric surgery patient begins with a comprehensive, in person clinical consultation with several objectives. The rst is to get to know the patient, as well as their family or other member of their social support structure who will be helping the patient achieve a healthier lifestyle. In getting to know the patient, the surgeon begins to build the rapport that will be necessary to gain the patient’s trust for what will be a long-standing clinical relationship that will span many visits over a multi-year time period to address a chronic health condition.
Second, the surgeon should conduct a traditional history and physical exam, focusing on not only the pertinent details of the patient’s history of obesity and efforts to lose weight through diet, exercise, and medical treatment but also a detailed review of their past medical and surgical history, social history including tobacco, alcohol, or other substance use, their current work or important hobbies that may be impacted by surgery and the necessary recovery, and a detailed review of their medication list. Patients should also be assessed if they are up to date on age-specic cancer screening such as mammograms and colonoscopies. [1] By reviewing this information, the surgeon can quickly glean patient-specic risk fac­tors that may impact their ability to safely undergo and recover from a complex surgical intervention and achieve the intended outcomes of weight loss and remis­sion of their associated medical comorbidities.
J. C. Cowling (*) · E. Wilson Department of Surgery, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA e-mail: john.c.cowling@uth.tmc.edu
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. Teixeira et al. (eds.), Duodenal Switch and Its Derivatives in Bariatric and Metabolic Surgery, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25828-2_15
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Particular interest should be given to a history of cardiovascular or cerebrovascu­lar events; coagulation disorders; pulmonary health including smoking, COPD, and obstructive sleep apnea; history of gastrointestinal disorders; and previous abdomi­nal and intestinal operations. Hepatic and renal disease and autoimmune disorders that might be treated by steroids or immune modulators should also be asked about.
A physical exam should include the patient’s current height, weight, and body mass index (BMI) among other vital signs. An exam might detect previously unknown cardiovascular or pulmonary risk factors such as signs of congestive heart failure or arterial disease that should be evaluated and addressed before undergoing anesthesia. An exam might also identify abdominal pathology such as masses, her­nias, or excessive abdominal surgical history that may complicate the ability to safely gain access to the abdomen or mobilize limbs of the intestine. Similarly, the presence of jaundice or other signs of severe liver dysfunction may preclude the patient as a surgical candidate.
Lastly, an assessment can begin to be made of the patient’s degree of frustration imposed by their morbid obesity and psychological readiness to undergo surgical weight loss, as well as their prior knowledge about or research of the available operations and the involved recovery. In fact, many patients will come to the ofce having already done a great deal of online research about surgical weight loss or will have known someone who has already undergone surgery and may have some preconceived biases about the operations of choice. This preoperative research is benecial, as a well-informed patient who has a solid understanding of the scope of weight loss surgery can reduce the risks of non-compliance or poor follow-up. This is a good opportunity to clear up any misconception about bariatric surgery func­tioning as a cosmetic intervention.
15.2 Risk Reduction
In our practice, risk assessment and reduction is achieved by evaluating and opti­mizing modiable patient-specic risk factors to achieve a safer surgical outcome, even at the expense of delaying surgery when necessary. Here, we will address some commonly evaluated conditions.
15.2.1 Smoking
Any patient with a smoking history is counselled on the need for cessation and offered resources to assist them in stopping tobacco use before surgery, typically by referral to their primary care provider. Our goal is to have the patient be free of smoking for at least 4–8weeks before surgery to allow time for the effects on wound
15 Risk Assessment andReduction
healing and inammation to reverse [2]. We conrm their cessation with a preopera­tive nicotine screen usually 1week before surgery, but some advocate for a cotinine test 1–2days prior [3] and there is evidence that smoking is underreported, espe­cially preoperatively, suggesting we should be more aggressive in screening [4]. A recent National Surgical Quality Improvement Program (NSQIP) review of over 133,000 patients undergoing sleeve gastrectomy and Roux-En-Y gastric bypass found that 9.3% of the patients were smokers and suffered substantially worse 30-day outcomes, including risks of readmission, death, and respiratory complica­tions [5]. Another NSQIP review of sleeve gastrectomy patients demonstrated increased risk of intubations and 30-day mortality in smokers [6]. Patients can be reassured that an effort to stop smoking should have little impact on their long-term weight loss. In a review of sleeve and gastric banding patients, pre- or post- operative smoking status was not associated with any signicant difference in weight loss in long-term follow-up [7]. Moser found no signicant difference in weight loss after sleeve gastrectomy, regardless of smoking status at 6, 12, and 24months [8].
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15.2.2 Substance Abuse
Bariatric surgery patients may also have a higher lifetime risk of substance abuse and the physiologic changes after surgery may put them at increased risk of alcohol abuse [9]. We consider active alcohol abuse or alcoholism to be a contraindication to bariatric surgery of any kind, including duodenal switch, and these patients are referred for rehabilitation and detoxication. Although data exists for duodenal switch, there is concern in the gastric bypass patient that alcohol absorption may be accelerated and reach higher concentrations in the blood, putting patients at increased risks of alcohol use disorder after surgery [10]. Patients are counselled about the risks of post-operative substance use disorders.
Patients with a history of opioid abuse and recovery should be given non-opioid analgesics in the perioperative period and utilize local anesthetic blocks to control pain [11]. Enhanced recovery (ERAS) protocols are already becoming widespread in bariatric surgery and can be applied to the duodenal switch patient.
15.2.3 Psychosocial Evaluation
Most third-party payers require psychosocial evaluation to determine that the patient does not have any untreated mental disorders or eating disorders as a condition of insurance approval. We refer patients to a local psychologist for this evaluation and follow any recommendations made. This topic is discussed in more detail in a prior chapter.
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15.2.4 Cardiopulmonary Assessment
Although preoperative cardiopulmonary assessment is not typically a provision of insurance approval, consideration should be given to cardiac evaluation and screen­ing of obstructive sleep apnea and obesity hypoventilation syndrome.
A good place to start, aside from a physical exam as mentioned above, is to assess the patient’s functional status. This is done by evaluating a patient’s ability to perform activities of daily living and is measured in metabolic equivalents (METs), which can be calculated using the Duke Activity Status Index. Perioperative cardiac risks are increased in patients unable to perform 4 METs [12].
The Revised Cardiac Risk Index is one of several available risk assessment tools to evaluate perioperative cardiac risk in patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery such as duodenal switch. The calculator gives one point and deems a patient high risk for any of the following: ischemic heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, con­gestive heart failure, insulin therapy for diabetes, serum creatinine level>2mg/dL, or planned high-risk surgery [13]. For patients in these categories, consideration should be given for referral to a cardiologist for consideration of preoperative stress testing, particularly if unable to perform 4 METs [14]. Patients on beta-blockade and statins should have these medications continued in the perioperative period.
The presence of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) can similarly be assessed using questionnaires such as STOP-Bang [15] and the Berlin Questionnaire to evaluate for factors like snoring, daytime sleepiness, and measured neck size to determine if the patient may benet from referral for polysomnography, which is the gold stan­dard for diagnosing OSA and will quantify the number of apnea and hypopnea events per hour as the apnea-hypopnea-index (AHI). Several studies have demon­strated a signicant prevalence of OSA in the bariatric surgery patient population of >60%. A recent expert consensus panel recommended preoperative and periopera­tive CPAP in patients with moderate to severe OSA, dened as an AHI>15 and to have patients bring their own machine and mask to the hospital for the postoperative period. Patients should also be monitored with continuous pulse oximetry in the early postoperative period until sedatives and opioids minimized [16].
15.2.5 Chronic Steroid Immunosuppression
Some patients presenting for evaluation may be on chronic steroid immunosuppres­sion for a variety of conditions. While there is no denitive study in the duodenal switch patient, reviews of gastric bypass and sleeve gastrectomy patients suggest an increase in postoperative complications. Kaplan found that patients on chronic ste­roids undergoing sleeve gastrectomy and gastric bypass had a 3.4 times increased risk of dying at 30days postop and 2 times increased risk of serious complications [17]. Andalib found an almost 7 times increased risk of 30-day mortality and similar twofold risk of major morbidity in sleeve and gastric bypass patients who were
15 Risk Assessment andReduction
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steroid dependent at the time of surgery. Also, there was no difference in 30-day complication rates between sleeve and gastric bypass, suggesting that sleeve is not a safer alternative in this population [18]. Heer found an increased risk of 30-day complications, bleeding, and anastomotic leak in immunosuppressed patients also undergoing sleeve and gastric bypass but appeared to show worse outcomes in the bypass cohort [19]. While the long-term effect of bariatric surgery and weight loss may reduce the inammatory state of certain rheumatic diseases [20], caution should be used in offering stapled operations to patients on chronic steroid immu­nosuppression, likely including duodenal switch.
15.2.6 Preoperative Weight Loss andLiver Volume Reduction
The concept of a preoperative diet to reduce the liver volume and moderate the technical challenges of bariatric surgery is controversial. Risk reduction may be achieved with a preoperative liver volume reduction diet that may result in improved exposure of the gastric cardia and reduce the risk of bleeding from an oversized liver. Visceral adiposity may also be reduced [21]. Very low calorie diets (VLCD, 450–800kcal/day) and low calorie diets (LCD 800–1200kcal/day) have been stud­ied. Van Nieuwenhove studied a 2-week VLCD in gastric bypass patients and found a decreased perception of difculty of the surgery but no difference in bleeding or outcomes [22]. Edholm also found improvement in the perceived complexity of gastric bypass in 15 patients following a 4-week LCD and resulted in a reduction of liver volume by 12% as measured by MRI [23].
The optimal time and degree of caloric restriction is unknown. A systematic review concluded that VLCD are effective for volume reduction but found no asso­ciation between degree of liver volume reduction and the length of a preoperative diet or degree of caloric restriction and that diets of <1500kcal/day are likely suf­cient for liver volume reduction [24].
It is also unclear if preoperative weight loss reduces postoperative complications. Ekici found no signicant difference in early postoperative outcomes or weight loss at 1year in patients having sleeve gastrectomy after a 4-week 1000kcal/day diet [25]. A randomized trial of gastric bypass patients found no difference in bleeding or postoperative outcomes [22]. Tan also found no difference in postoperative com­plications in bypass and sleeve patients with <5% or >5% weight loss after a VLCD [26]. There may also be a detrimental effect to wound healing with a prolonged preoperative VLCD of 4weeks [27].
While we do not know of any studies evaluating preoperative weight loss speci­cally in the duodenal switch population, there is likely at least some benet to achieving liver volume reduction with a 2-week LCD to mitigate the technical chal­lenges of an enlarged fatty liver, especially during the sleeve creation portion of the operation.
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15.2.7 Hospital andProgrammatic Support
ofBariatric Surgery
Surgery should be done within a comprehensive accredited bariatric program with access to nutritional consultation both pre and postoperatively and with adequate support staff to assist the patient in preparing for surgery and to monitor the patient in postoperative recovery. Additionally, surgery should be performed in a hospital setting with the resources to care for the inherent high-risk complexities of these morbidly obese patients. Some third-party payers require that these surgeries are performed in high-volume centers of excellence.
A plan should be made and literature provided to the patient that details all aspects of the postoperative recovery. In our practice, this includes educating the patient on the expected time they will be in the hospital recovering and how much time they should plan to be out of work while recovering at home. In our practice, this is generally 1–2weeks, depending on the physical nature of their employment or daily activities. Additionally, we provide information on the postoperative diet, which involves liquids for 2weeks, followed by a gradual advancement through pureed and soft foods over the course of weeks 3–6, and that emphasizes daily pro­tein intake of 60–80 grams and avoidance of carbohydrate dense and fatty foods. Additionally, patients must have a rm understanding of the risk of malnutrition and short and long-term vitamin deciency and the inherent need for and nancial con­siderations of lifelong vitamin supplementation. In our practice, we require close follow-up after surgery at 1 and 6weeks, 3, 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24months, and then yearly thereafter and perform routine monitoring of both their weight loss and any side effects. We also engage in regular laboratory monitoring of hematologic, meta­bolic, and hepatic function and monitor vitamin and mineral levels. Patients must be committed to the time and travel burden necessary to make these follow-up appointments.
Maybe the most important aspect of risk reduction is a comprehensive experi­ence and plan prior to surgery that addresses the technical challenges of the surgery including safe dissection and division of the duodenum, safe and reproducible anas­tomotic technique and efforts to streamline the operation to minimize operative time and increase efciency. It is our opinion that this can be achieved by attending specialized training courses and lectures with experienced duodenal switch sur­geons, practicing the technique in cadaveric models ahead of surgery and having an experienced proctor or assistant present during the early and crucial phases of the learning curve. It makes intuitive sense that a surgeon who decides to perform duo­denal switch should have adequate experience in both sleeve gastrectomy and anas­tomotic weight loss surgery (e.g., Roux-en-Y gastric bypass) prior to adding duodenal switch to the surgical armamentarium offered to patients in his or her practice. Whether a single or double anastomosis procedure is performed, prior experience in sleeve creation and bowel anastomosis will be crucial in safely per­forming these technically advanced operations.
15 Risk Assessment andReduction
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Despite every effort made to assess and reduce the risks to the patient of under­going duodenal switch, operative and perioperative complications are inherent to the nature of surgery. We believe that giving informed consent of the risks of surgery is crucial to the ethical practice of surgery. Patients must understand the real risks of bleeding, anastomotic leak, stricture and ulcer, deep venous and mesenteric venous thromboembolism, incisional hernia, bowel obstruction, malnutrition, and even myocardial infarction, stroke, or death.
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