Биология в современном мире. Учебное пособие

1 Lesson 1. Biosphere (Биосфера)

1.1 Exercise 1

Mind the following words and set expressions.

1.concept – концепция

2.animate(inanimate) nature– живая(неживая) природа

3.to make up – составлять

4.environmental conditions – условия окружающей среды

5.matter – материя

6.origin – происхождение

7.substratum (pl. substrata) – нижний слой, подпочва

8.sedimentary rock – осадочная порода

9.soil – почва

10.specimen – образец

11.to be apparent – быть очевидным

12.property – свойство

13.substance – вещество

14.chain – цепь

15.by means of – посредством

16.in turn - в свою очередь

17.species (pl. species) – вид, род, разновидность

18.as well as – а также

1.2 Exercise 2

Mind the following regular verbs.

To surround – окружать; to include – включать в себя; to believe – полагать,

верить; to result (from) – происходить в результате, проистекать; to differ –

различаться; to exist – существовать; to inhabit – населять; to define –

определять; to perish – погибать, умирать; to separate – отделять; to provide (for)

– предусматривать; to concern – заботиться, беспокоиться; to vary – отличаться;

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to consider – считать, полагать, рассматривать; to refer (to) – относиться; to consume – потреблять; to reduce – уменьшать; to cause – вызывать, быть причиной; to distinguish– определять; to explain – объяснять.

1.3 Exercise 3

Give three principle forms of the irregular verbs. Mind them.

To see, to grow, to eat, to be, to have, to make, to take, to do, to feed, to know, to find.

1.4 Exercise 4

Read and translate the following groups of words. Use a dictionary if necessary.

1)to depend – dependent – independent parts; dependence – independence.

2)to separate – separation – separator – inseparable elements.

3)to change – changeable – interchangeable – interchangeably – to be used interchangeably.

4)to vary – varied features; various, variant, variety, variance.

5)cell – cellular – cellulate – cellule – cellulose – unicellular algae.

1.5 Exercise 5

Pay attention to the following nouns in plural. Mind them.

1.6Exercise 6

Choose the proper equivalents to the following verb groups.

d) is known

1.7 Exercise 7

Translate the sentences. Pay attention to the passive constructions.

1)The boundaries between trophic levels are not always clear-cut.

2)Food chains are not isolated from each other, but closely interconnected.

3)Such feeding successions are known as food chains.

4)The plants and animals in one biocenosis are often more closely related than specimens of one species.

5)It can now be seen why these organisms didn’t tend to grow in size through

evolution.

6)These species are to be differed in their properties.

7)These specimens are often referred to.

8)The definite environmental conditions were depended on in our region.

9)The properties of the substance are provided for by the experiment.

10)The environmental conditions in our region were concerned about.

1.8 Exercise 8

Put four types of questions to the following sentences.

1)Biocenoses and ecosystems represent smaller sized models of the biosphere.

2)The trophic structure of biocenoses consists of regular food links between the organisms.

3)The crabs are eated by pilchards.

1.9 Exercise 9

Read the following text. Translate it.

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The composition of the Biosphere.

The first scientific concept of the biosphere was proposed by the prominent Russian scientist Vladimir Vernadsky (1863-1945). According to his definition the biosphere is the outer enclosure (sphere) of the Earth where life is found. It includes all the planet’s living organisms and elements of inanimate nature which make up their biotic environment. Vernadsky said: “The biosphere is the environment of our life, it is the nature which surrounds us”. He believed that the biosphere consisted of several parts, four of which were the most important. They are living matter – plants, animals and microorganisms; biogenic matter – organic and organic-and-mineral produced by living organisms in the course of geological history, i.e. coal, shale, peat, oil and others; inert matter – rocks of inorganic origin and water, representing a substratum or environment for living organisms; bio-inert matter resulting from the synthesis of living and non-living (inert) matter; sedimentary rock, crust of weathering, soil, silt (underwater soil) and others.

The propotion of the living and non-living may differ in bio-inert matter. For example, the soil contains an average of 93 percent mineral (inert) and 7 percent organic (living and biogenic) matter.

The biosphere has a mosaic structure consisting of individual, relatively independent parts. These parts known as biocenoses and ecosystems represent specific smaller-sized models of the biosphere. Therefore in studying biocenoses and ecosystems we learn the laws of the existence of the biosphere as a whole.

A biocenosis (association) is defined as the sum total of living organisms inhabiting a section of the environment with more or less similar conditions. The plants and animals in one biocenosis are often more closely related than specimens of one species. This is particular apparent in food (trophic) chains: herbivorous animals would perish without plants, carnivorous animals would perish without the animals they eat and so on. The concept of biocenosis is closely related to that of biotope, i.e. the area occupied by a biocenosis. The biocenosis and its biotope form two inseparable elements which act upon each other and make up a more or less stable system called an ecosystem (ecological system). In other words the ecosystem

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consists of two parts: organic, i.e. the biocenosis inhabiting it, and inorganic, i.e. the biotope providing an area for that biocenosis. The biotope may also be defined as the geological environment in which a biocenosis exists. For this reason the biotope plus the biocenosis is called the biogeocenosis. In modern ecological literature the terms ecosystem and biogeocenosis are used practically interchangeably.

The biogeocenosis (ecosystem) consists of the plant community (phytocenosis) plus the animal kingdom (zoocenosis), microorganisms and the relevant areas of the earth’s surface with its specific properties of the atmosphere, geological structure, soil and water cycle. All the above components make up one mutually related complex.

Similar organisms living under water different environmental conditions form different ecosystems. For example, spruce forests in the Moscow region and in the Caucasus are different ecosystems. It is the same among water organisms: planktons in sea, river, lake or pond water also constitute different ecosystems. Modern ecology is concerned with the study of ecosystems which is closely related to problems of nature conservation.

1.10 Exercise 10

Answer the following questions.

1)What is the biosphere from Vernadsky’s point of view?

2)What parts does it consist of?

3)What models of the biosphere do you know?

4)What parts does an ecosystems include?

5)A biocenosis is inorganic matter, isn’t it?

6)A biotope isn’t inorganic matter, is it?

7)Why are the terms ecosystems and biogeocenosis used now interchangeably?

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1.11 Exercise 11

Write down from the text all the biological terms and mind them.

1.12 Exercise 12

Write down from the text all names of animals, birds and plants. Mind them.

1.13 Exercise 13

Speak on the biosphere consisting of four parts. Fill in the scheme, figure 1.

Biosphere

1.14 Exercise 14

Speak on the biocenosis, using the following words and expressions. Association, living organisms, to inhabit, to be related, specimens, food chains, herbivorous animals, carnivorous animals, to perish, to eat.

1.15 Exercise 15

Fill in the scheme. Speak on it, figure 2.

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biocenosis

phytocenosis

soil

Figure 2 - Exercise 15

1.16 Exercise 16

Read the text and discuss it with your partner: ask questions, share your opinions; make up your own schemes.

The structure of biocenosis involves a certain location and mutual relationship of elements within them. Biocenoses as systems consist of individual elements, the varied features of which may be considered in a large number of aspects,trophic taxonomic and chorologic aspects, size, etc. Accordingly we refer to trophic, species, spatial, dimensional and other structures of biocenoses.

The trophic structure of biocenoses consists of regular food links between the organisms in them. For example, many insects eat plants, lizards eat insects, some snakes eat lizards while certain birds and mammals eat snakes. Among sea organisms, diatomic algae may be taken from the water and eaten by crabs. These crabs are eaten by pilchards; pilchards, in turn, serve as food for larger fish; and these fish are hunted by tuna and sharks. Thus, nutritious organic substances are successively included in the protoplasm of five organisms from diatoms to sharks. Sometimes, the organic substance passes along a shorter route, for instance, from unicellular algae to larger plankton, crabs and from them to any of whale species.

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Such feeding successions are known as food chains. The number of links in

these chains may vary, but usually there are from three to five.

1)Producers are plants producing organic substances from inorganic substances.

2)Primary consumers are herbivorous animals.

3)Secondary consumers are primary carnivorous animals feeding on herbivorous animals.

4)Secondary consumers are carnivorous animals feeding on the previous

group.

5)Tertiary carnivorous animals.

The above links in the food chains are also called trophic levels. The boundaries between these levels are not always clear cut. For example tertiary (very large) carnivorous animals eat not only secondary and primary carnivores but also plant-eating animals and even plants (for example, the bear).

Food chains are not isolated from each other but closely interconnected. This interconnection is often called a food web.

Any biocenosis consists not only of producers and consumers but also reducers. The latter include bacteria and saprophyte fungi which live mainly on dead organic matter causing their putrefaction and decay (reduction) into non-organic components. These three groups – producers, consumers and reducers – are distinguished by the nature of nutrition. As a result, during the course of evolution they formed different types of organization.

The higher plants developed the organs of photosynthesis – leaves which are connected by means of the stalk and root with the soil. Animals eat by swallowing food. In the course of evolution they developed an alimentary tract and the vascular and excretory systems functionally related to it, as well as skeletal, muscle and nervous systems which allow for movement to procure food. Saprophytes eat by sucking in their food. This explains why they are so simply organized. The small size of bacteria provide for a relatively large surface of absorption. It can now be seen why these organisms did not tend to grow in size through the evolution.

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1.17 Exercise 17

Summarize the information about the biosphere. Make up your plan of the texts

and speak on them.

2 Lesson 2. The biotic factors of environment (Биотические

факторы среды)

2.1 Exercise 1

Mind the following words and set expressions.

1)predator – prey interaction – взаимодействие между хищником и

жертвой;

2)to have benefit to – иметь преимущество перед…

3)means – средство; to mean – означать;

4)food supply – запасы пищи;

5)in short supply – дефицитный;

6)competition – конкуренция;

7)natural selection – естественный отбор;

8)habitat – место распространения;

9)niche – убежище, экологическая ниша;

10)to make use of – использовать;

11)to threaten each other’s survival – угрожать выживанию друг друга;

12)to be apt to - быть склонным к чему-либо;

13)extinct – вымирающий;

14)database – база данных;

15)to be subject to – подвергаться чему-либо;

16)raw materials – сырье.

17)to meet the requirements – удовлетворять потребности.

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