Basics of English Stylistics. Учебное пособие-1

TOPIC IV. LEXICOLOGY

According to the findings, the first 25 words on the frequency list make up about one-third of all printed material in English, and the first 100 words make up about half of all written English. According to the study, all of the first hundred of the most common words in English are of Old English origin, which is extremely curious. Some lists of commonly used words distinguish between grammatical word forms, while others combine all word forms as a single lexeme, as it is cited in dictionaries. Mostly it concerns the lexeme be with all its conjugated forms (is, was, am, are, were, etc.), and contracted conjugations as well. The top most frequent 100 lemmas listed below account for 50% of all the words in the Oxford English Corpus: the, be (is, were,..), to, of, and, a, in, that, have, I, it, for, not, on, with, he, as, you … [9].

It is obvious that frequent words have neutral colouring, unlike other words which are stylistically marked. In the existing classification we speak about bookish, neutral and colloquial words. We can also single out smaller subgroups of slang words, professionalisms, poetic, dialect words, terms, vulgar, nonce-words, etc.

Professor Y. M. Skrebnev offers to use the following criteria for the classification of English Vocabulary [7, 52–76]:

1)According to the time of usage: archaic words (historisms, obsolete, obsolescent), current words of the epoch and new creations (neologisms, occasionalisms), which are still felt new and not accepted by the society.

2)According to the general aesthetic value of words or their social prestige. It indicates whether the word suits the sphere of communication, whetheritishigh-flownortoocoarseortoolowtobeusedatall.Stylistically coloured words differ from neutral ones in two possible ways, they are either less valuable or more valuable than the set of neutral words.They are either better than neutral or worse, have positive or negative connotation, viewed as elevated or degraded.This differentiation has a social grounding. Elevation of words and their degradation are the results of taking into consideration three factors at least: the subject-matter of communication, the character of the communicative sphere and the participants of speech communication.

31

TOPIC IV. LEXICOLOGY

3) According to the degree of elevation and degradation: minimal – medial – maximal. The degree can be higher or lower. When the speaker uses the word of minimal degree, we can presuppose the absence of intended purpose, i.e., the speaker does not select one word or another deliberately to achieve a stylistic effect; he never notices the difference with the neutral one; he merely uses what comes handy to him. The medial degree indicates a deliberate selection, a conscious act of stylistic choice. The maximal degree is what we can attribute to highly expressive words possessing either very special (uncommon) value or words inadmissible ethically.

Let us see some examples. Groups of socially elevated words include: Minimally elevated words are slightly bookish educated words used automatically by cultivated speakers: activity, prevail, inherent. These lexemes are comprehensible but not actively used by non–educated people. Medial elevated words are expressively bookish words which betray the speaker’s desire to be especially high–flown and elegant: expunge, somnolent, sagacity, etc. To ordinary people these words are unknown. Maximal elevation can be found in words used in poetry and high

prose: morn, sylvan, ne’er, etc.

Obviously, the borderline is very vague, more imaginary than real. There is certainly a difference what vocabulary we use habitually, what we use on purpose and what is employed as an exception.

Much simpler is the distinction within degraded words.

Minimal degradation remains unobserved in the act of speech: reply, man, thing, etc. Medial degradation is for words which are created and used because the speaker and the hearer know exactly that these words are the wrong words. Their linguistic status is lexical outlaws, as units banned by polite usage. Maximal degradation characterises words and expressions rejected by the whole system of morals and ethics of the linguistic community. They are indecent words, the very meaning of which makes them unmentionable; or vulgar words with acceptable lexical reference but coarse associations.

Let us examine in a very general manner the correlation of the word classes singled out traditionally in Stylistics. Some groups are stylistically

32

TOPIC IV. LEXICOLOGY

homogeneous and represent one type of social value. For example, poetic words are characterised by maximal degree of evaluation, official vocabulary is medially elevated, colloquialisms are minimally degraded, slang word and nonce-words are medially degraded, vulgar words are maximally degraded.

There are some heterogeneous groups of words. Bookish words have all degrees of elevation. As the name indicates, these words are used in educated cultured speech, in public speeches, books, official negotiations, etc.They often have synonymous neutral words (to commence / to begin, to respond / to answer, an individual / a man, etc.). Bookish words happen to be mostly borrowed words from Latin or Greek. The impropriety of using expressively learned words in everyday conversation with the reference to trivial everyday subjects, was splendidly shown by Otto Jespersen, a Danish scholar:

“Ayoung girl came home from school and explains to her granny ‘Take an egg. Make a perforation in the base and a corresponding one in the apex. Then apply your lips to the aperture, and by forcibly inhaling the breath the shell is entirely discharged of its contents.’

Her old granny was listening carefully and exclaimed ‘It beats all how folks do things nowadays. When I was a gal they made a hole in each end and sucked.’” [cited: 7, p. 64].

The other examples of correspondence between bookish and neutral or colloquial words are:

A great crowd came to see. / A vast concourse was assembled to witness.;

The man began his answer. / The individual commenced his rejoinder.

Archaic words (thou, thee, ye, knight) can be highly elevated or highly degraded. They are the words which are practically out of use in presentday English. When they are used they recall bygone epochs. There are two major reasons of the disappearance of these words: the disappearance of the objects they denote (yeoman, hauberk), historical archaisms; the replacement by modern synonyms, very often a loan word (main by ocean, to deem by to consider) [4, p. 83–87].

33

TOPIC IV. LEXICOLOGY

The use of archaic words in fiction serves several purposes:

–To give the historical colour. In historical novels they serve to characterise the speech of the time, to reproduce the atmosphere of the era. In Walter Scott’s novels there are a lot of archaisms, both lexical and grammatical. Nay, we question you not. Methinks.

Archaisationoftheworkoffictiondoesnotmeancompletereproduction of the speech of the past. It is effected by an occasional use of archaic words or grammar forms [8, p. 25].

Sometimes archaisation is relative. In Mark Twain’s novel “A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court” the events happen in the 4th century. At that time the language was Celtic, as English began to appear only in the 5th century. But Mark Twain uses archaic forms of the 16th century: aught, naught, etc.

–to underline the attachment to antiquity. In the novel by Charles Dickens “Old Curiosity Shop” the owner of the shop uses a lot of archaic words eke, albeit, manse, etc. He sounds old-fashioned as becoming to his business.

–to elevate the speech in poetic style. As these words are no longer current, archaic words are associated by modern language users with the speech and culture of remote bygone eras. It is a well-known fact, that people tend to view the past more romantically than the times they live in. Archaic words add solemnity, high–flown tonality and emotional (romantic or nostalgic) colouring:

I saw thee weep – the big bright tear Came o’er that eye of blue;

And then methought it did appear A violet dropping dew. (Byron)

–to add solemnity when used in official documents. The stylistic purpose of archaic words in conventional official documents is to raise the issues discussed above the ordinary trivial matters of everyday life: whereof, wherefore, in witness whereof we have caused this diploma to be signed…

Colloquial words are classified closer to neutral words. In their use there is no specific stylistic purpose on the part of the interlocutors

34

TOPIC IV. LEXICOLOGY

[1, с. 363–368]. They do not intend to sound rude or vulgar by pronouncing these words, though there is a tinge of familiarity or informality in them. Speakers just use them because they are typical in their individual vocabulary.There is nothing ethically improper in colloquialisms, only that they cannot be used in semi-formal or formal styles. They are divided into the following subgroups:

1)colloquial words proper. They comprise colloquial synonyms of neutral words: chunk / lump, chap / fellow, mummy / mother, etc.;

2)phonetic variants of neutral words: feller / fellow, baccy / tobacco,

etc.;

3)diminutives of neutral or colloquial words: daddy / father, granny / grandmother, Johnny / John, Becky / Rebecca, etc.;

4)colloquial meanings or lexico-semantic variants of polysemantic words: hedgehog (unmanageable person);

5)most interjections: gee, eh, well, etc.

Care should be taken not to confuse colloquial speech with the speech of illiteracy: we was, they should of seen him, etc.

Neologisms are newly coined words which are not readily accepted by language users, so they have low social value, although the speaker’s intention is quite the opposite. In general, new words are characterised by medial degree of aesthetic value: wellness, slimnastics, heliport, eyewear.

Nonce-words are also newly coined units invented by the speaker for a definite occasion. Such words do not remain in the language, not fixed in dictionaries, having served their one-time purpose. They can disappear completely or stay on as language curiosities. As a rule, they produce a humorous effect: womanity, balconyful of gentlemen.

Terms are a word subclass that includes the majority of lexical units of every modern language serving the needs of a highly developed science and technology. It is a common prejudice of linguistics to consider terms as devoiding any stylistic colouring. Terms do not express any emotional subjective connotations. At the same time there is no denying the fact of their aesthetic value as compared with neutral words. A term is always associated with socially prestigious professional spheres by a layman.

35

TOPIC IV. LEXICOLOGY

It refers to an idea which otherwise requires a circumlocutional description in a non–professional sphere. Hence, it gives the layman a kind of intellectual satisfaction [4, p. 76–78].

Thestylisticfunctionoftermsvariesindifferenttypesoftexts.Inspecial professional spheres terms perform no expressive or aesthetic function, but they show the character’s professional belonging to the sphere of science and technology.

In non–professional spheres (imaginative prose, newspaper articles, everyday colloquial speech) terms are of minimal or medial degree of evaluation. To the average speaker, the use of specific, not common, terms shows a pretentious manner of speech, the lack of taste or tact.

Slang is a subclass of vocabulary consisting of commonly understood andwidelyusedwordsandexpressionsofderogatoryorhumorouscharacter [1, с. 365–368]. Slang words are understood as intentional substitutes for neutral or elevated words and expressions. Sometimes the terms slang and jargon are used synonymously, but the term slang is applied to vocabulary in common use, unlike the terms professional or social jargon, which refer to specific spheres of communication. Many slang words and expressions etymologically appeared originally in narrow social or professional groups of people for communication within these groups. When they gain wide recognition,theyenterthesubgroupofgeneralslangwords[4,p.104–108].

The motivation for slang is more extralinguistic than purely linguistic. Among them is the psychological reason to strive for the novelty of expression. This psychological and stylistic tendency is especially strong with young generations, with young people who rebel against any norms and conventions, including the conventions of speech of their elders. Slang words are used just because they are wrong words for a particular communicative event, like a nickname instead of a commonly accepted name. Sometimes a slang word is so frequently used that it can cease to be slang and become colloquial, then neutral. Here are some examples of words which originated as slang, but now are viewed as colloquial or even neutral: pub, skyscraper, bus, taxi, cab, movie, piano, flu, dandy.

As mentioned above, slang appears as to replace hackneyed habitual denominations by new original expressive ones. And yet the growing

36

TOPIC IV. LEXICOLOGY

popularity of every new creation prevents it from remaining fresh and impressive. What was felt strikingly witty not long ago, sounds dull and stale today, since everybody knows this slang word and uses it actively. So, very quickly slang words come into the language and go. Old-timers and new-comers can co-exist in the language for a short time, which makes slang very rich in synonyms. Lexicologists argue that there are at least 40 slang words to express each of such everyday notions as sexual attraction, food, money, addictions, etc: food (chuck, grub, chow, hash), money (oof, jack, brass, tin, slippery stuff).

Neutral words can have their figurative meaning classified as slang in order to sound humorous, contemptuous, derogatory: upper storey (head), skirt (girl), killing (astonishing), fin (hand), clear as mud. These slang lexico-semantic variants are derived as metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole or irony.

Jargon is slang words which are typical in professional or social groups as informal often humorous replacements of words already existing in the language. The use of jargon also implies defiance, a kind of naughtiness in linguistic behaviour of a social or professional group. To the jargon user, formal or even neutral words would seem as overcorrect, pedantic, and unnecessarily high-flown. There are three groups of jargons:

1)nicknames of phenomena, objects, processes of a definite profession in opposition or protest to the official terms. They are called professional jargon or professionalisms. These words replace official terms of a profession. They are used by people in the profession automatically, so without a deliberate stylistic intention. They are used only just because their usage is an established custom of the profession. In this way they are similar to colloquialisms: GI (government issue, soldier), picture show (battle), to be put in a bag (to be killed), a bird (pilot);

2)the jargon proper is a group of professional terms used to denote nonprofessional objects, phenomena or processes outside a certain profession. The meaning of this group of jargon enters everyday life notions: big gun (an important person), dug-out (a retired);

3)social jargon is used by people sharing the same social ties or interests, students, fans of sports or music, etc. A special place is occupied

37

TOPIC IV. LEXICOLOGY

by cant, a secret lingo of the underworld, thieves and other criminals. The striving for secrecy was perhaps the primary reason for the cant to appear. One who talked cant could not be understood by other people. These words are originally English words with a transferred meaning: a lifer (to serve a life sentence), to pull a leather (to steal a wallet), barkers (pistols), etc.

Barbarismsorforeignwordsare borrowed words not fully assimilated in the language. Their foreign spelling or pronunciation or both have been preserved, although they are widely used in modern English: bouquet, rouge, alter ego, etc. It is difficult to single out one degree of elevation [4, p. 87–90]. They penetrate all spheres of language communication. The stylistic value of French or Italian borrowings, pertaining to artistic spheres of music or painting is higher than the borrowings from minor or exotic languages, likeAmerican Indians’(moccasin, toboggan). The use of foreign words can perform several functions:

1)to show the speaker’s roots or bounds to the original country of the word: I spoke with your housfrau.

2)To sound elegant or exquisite: au revoir, chic, etc.

Vulgar words are stylistically lowest and degraded group of words, which are considered to be too offensive for polite usage. They can be divided into two groups: lexical and stylistic vulgarisms. To the first group belong the words expressing notions unmentionable in a civilized society. They are called indecencies and can be euphemistically expressed by omissions, various substitutes, abbreviations or by scientific or medical terms [4, p. 118]. For example, the word bloody is replaced by adjectives and participles beginning with the same letters bl-: blessed, blooming, blasted, blamed, etc. When a substitute becomes generally known and accepted by the speaking community it can be considered as vulgar as the original word.

The second group of stylistic vulgarisms comprises the words and expressions which lexical meaning is proper, but their connotations are derogatory, rude and offensive: old bean (old person), smeller (nose), dirt (money), etc.

38

TOPIC IV. LEXICOLOGY

Stylistic phraseology

What was said about the stylistic differentiation of vocabulary is applicable to set expressions or phraseological units. They can be highflown or derogatory, bookish or colloquial. Elevated phraseology includes:

Archaisms:theknightofthequill (awriter),Gordianknot(acomplicated problem);

Bookish words: an earthly paradise (a happy location), the iron in one’s soul (permanent bitterness);

Foreign units: haut courtier (high culture), mot just (the exact word). Phraseology can be degraded:

Colloquial: safe and sound, alive and kicking; Jargon: a loss leader (a feature article below the cost);

Slang: to shoot one’s grandmother (to tell a banal joke), to kick the bucket (to die).

A special stylistic device, the decomposition of set expressions, means to violate the set expression. It is widely used in jokes, slogans and advertisements. For example,

He had been shifting from foot to an unaccustomed foot (to shift from foot to foot), Fact forbid! (God forbid!)

God knows she was always saying something unpleasant. But he knew better than God.

Theothersideofthemetal(theothersideofthemedal)–anadvertisement for the quality of the car.

Our love is blinds (love is blind) – an advertisement of blinds.

A Silver lining without a cloud (every cloud has its silver lining) – an advertisement for the vodka Silver without hangover.

Stylistic word-formation

The word-formation models possess word-formation meanings which can also have connotations or express subjectivity [1, с. 165–170]. For example,

39

TOPIC IV. LEXICOLOGY

1)Adj + -ish –> Adj. Adjectives of colour express small quantity or moderation (yellowish, brownish)

2)Adj + -ish –> Adj. With other adjectives it sounds less categorical (tallish, biggish, dullish)

3)N + -ish –> Adj. With the noun stems the derived adjectives express contempt and sound derogatory (childish, doggish, sheepish)

4)N / Adj + -ard / -ster / -eer / -monger –> N. The derived nouns with these suffixes express negative attitude (drunkard, coward, gangster, oldster, profiteer, black-marketeer, war-monger, panic-monger)

5)N / Adj + -kin / -let / -ling / -y / -ie –> N. These derived nouns express diminutive meaning, sound jokingly or express contempt (lambkin, starlet, weakling, daddy, lassie, oldie)

6)N + -ism – >N. According to that model bookish words denoting abstract notions are formed (formalism, humanism)

7)N + -ette – > N.This model has a diminutive meaning and sometimes add outlandish elegance or novelty (cigar – cigarette, kitchen – kitchenette, lecture – lecturette)

8)Non- / Anti- / Pseudo- / Quasi- + Adj / N – > Adj / N. Prefixes are rarely used in modern English. Some models form bookish learned words, specific vocabulary or terms (non-resistant, non-transferrable, antidepressant, antidote, pseudo-religious, quasi-scientific).

Questions for self-control

1.What are the criteria for stylistic classification of the English vocabulary?

2.How do you understand the social value of words?

3.What are the functions of archaic words?

4.What subgroups of colloquial words do you know?

5.What is the difference between neologisms and nonce-words?

6.What is the difference between colloquial words and slang?

7.What stylistic groups of phraseology can we single out?

8.Can the word–formation meaning be stylistically marked?

40