Public Administration. Хрестоматия для студентов-магистров направления подготовки 38.04.02 «Менеджмент», профиля «Управление имущественным комплексом»

maintenance – обслуживание; эксплуатация welfare services – социальные услуги public-utility services – коммунальные услуги

Answer the questions:

1.How many levels of government can be found in modern states? What are these levels called?

2.What do states with two levels of government differ in? Give examples.

3.How does the distribution of powers among the central and the intermediate governments vary in states with three levels of government?

4.What are states with two levels of government called?

5.What states are called federal?

6.What states are called decentralized?

7.How many levels of government have most of the world’s nation-states got?

8.What does the model ‘federal state’ require?

9.How are powers distributed between the central and intermediate governments in the federal state?

10.What does the role of regional governments in regionalist states depend on?

11.What are the most important functions of a city government?

12.Who may public-utility services be provided by?

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QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION:

1.What factors enable totalitarianism?

2.How does censorship affect society?

3.What constitutes an actual, functioning democracy?

4.How does the organization of different types of democratic government affect the ability of citizens to influence policy making?

5.What are advantages and disadvantages of federalism?

6.What is the role of the central and local governments in the Russian Federation?

Separation of powers

The concept of separation of powers is one of the principal doctrines of modern constitutionalism. Nearly all modern constitutions provide for the separate establishment of legislative, executive, and judiciary. In the nonconstitutional system of totalitarianism, although there may be separate institutions such as legislatures, executives, and judiciaries, power is not shared but rather concentrated in a single organ.

The characteristic function of all legislatures is the making of law. In most systems, however, legislatures also have other tasks, such as selection and criticism of the government, supervision of administration, appropriation of funds, ratification of treaties, impeachment of executive and judicial

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officials, determination of election procedures, etc. Legislatures, then, are not simply lawmaking bodies. Neither do they monopolize the function of making law. In most systems the executive has a power of veto over legislation, and, even where this is lacking, the executive may exercise powers of legislation.

Judges, also, often share in the lawmaking process, for example in the U.S. system it is done by means of judicial review of legislation. The most common names for legislatures are parliament and congress.

In parliamentary systems of government, the legislature is formally supreme and appoints the executive. In presidential system of government, the legislature is considered equal to, and independent of, the executive. The primary components of a legislature are one or more chambers or houses that debate and vote upon bills. A legislature with one house is called unicameral. A bicameral legislature possesses two separate chambers, usually described as an upper house and a lower house, which often differ in duties and powers.

Political executives are government officials who participate in the determination of government policy. They include heads of state and government leaders – presidents, prime ministers, premiers, chancellors, and other chief executives – and many secondary figures, such as cabinet members and ministers, councilors, and agency heads.

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The crucial element in the organization of a national executive is the role assigned to the chief executive. In presidential systems, such as in the United States, the president is both the political head of the government and the ceremonial head of state. In parliamentary systems, such as in Great Britain, the prime minister is the national political leader, but another figure, a monarch or elected president, serves as the head of state. In mixed presidential parliamentary systems, such as that established in France, the president serves as head of state but also wields important political powers, including the appointment of a prime minister and cabinet to serve as the government.

Like legislators and executives, judges are major participants in the policy-making process. The process of judicial decision making is distinctive, however, for it is concerned with specific cases in which an individual has come into conflict with society by violating its norms or in which individuals have come into conflict with one another.

Established court systems are found in all advanced political systems. Usually there are two judicial hierarchies, one dealing with civil and the other with criminal cases, each with a large number of local courts, a lesser number at the level of the region, and one or more courts at the national level. This is the pattern of judicial organization in Britain, for example. The United States has two court systems:

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one set of national courts and 50 sets of state courts. By contrast, Germany possesses only a single integrated court system.

(Adapted from: https://global.britannica.com/topic/political system/Contemporarydivisions- of-government)

constitutionalism – конституционализм legislatures – законодательные органы executives – исполнительные органы judiciaries – судебные органы

appropriation of funds – ассигнование средств ratification of treaties – ратификация договоров lawmaking body – законодательный орган

to exercise powers – осуществлять власть/полномочия

judicial review – судебный пересмотр; судебное обжалование

supreme – верховный; высший chamber – палата

unicameral – однопалатный bicameral – двухпалатный

chief executive – глава исполнительной власти secondary – второстепенный (среднего звена) councilor – советник

agency heads – руководители ведомств

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to assign – возлагать; отводить to wield – обладать

distinctive – особенный; уникальный to violate norms – нарушать нормы

established court systems – развитые/налаженные судебные системы

advanced – передовой; развитый pattern – модель; схема

Answer the questions:

1.What does the concept ‘separation of powers’ mean?

2.Does the existence of separate institutions such as legislatures, executives,

and judiciaries always imply separation of powers?

3.What is the characteristic function of all legislatures? Is it the only

function?

4.Do legislatures monopolize the function of making law? If not, how can

other institutions exercise powers of legislation?

5.What are the most common names for legislatures?

6.Is the legislature equal to the executive in parliamentary systems of

government?

7.Is the legislature equal to the executive in presidential systems of

government?

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8.What are the primary components of the legislature?

9.What is the legislature with one house called? What is the legislature with

two separate houses called?

10.What is the main function of political executives?

11.What role is assigned to the chief executive in presidential systems, in

parliamentary systems and in mixed presidentialparliamentary systems?

12.What do judges have to deal with?

13.What is the pattern of judicial organization in Britain?

14.What court systems are found in the United States

and in Germany?

Governmental functions

In all modern states, governmental functions have greatly expanded with the emergence of government as an active force in guiding social and economic development. One of the main governmental functions is self-preservation. The country must seek to command the attachment of a community of citizens as well as to preserve itself from external violence. Civil war signifies that the government has lost one of the basic attributes of political authority: its monopoly of force and its control over the use of violence. In a fundamental

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sense, political authority may be preserved from the threat of civil war only when there exists in the political community an agreement on the basic principles of the regime. Such a consensus is the result, among other things, of a shared ‘ideology’ that gives fellow citizens a sense of communal belonging and recognizes interlocking values, interests, and beliefs. Ideology is sometimes associated with ancient customs, sometimes with religion, sometimes with the sort of common need that has led to the formation of many nation-states, and sometimes with the fear of a common enemy. The ideological commitment that people call patriotism is typically the product of several of these forces. In this sense, civic education should be counted among the essential functions of the state.

Governments must preserve themselves against external as well as domestic threats. For this purpose they maintain armed forces and carry on intelligence activities. They also try to prevent the entry of aliens who may be spies or terrorists, imprison or expel the agents of foreign powers, and embargo the export of materials that may aid a potential enemy.

Supervision and resolution of conflicts is another key function of the government. Representative institutions are themselves a device for the resolution of conflict. Elections in constitutional democracies provide opportunities for mass participation in a process public decision;

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parliamentary institutions provide for public hearings on major issues of policy; and political parties integrate a variety of interests and effect compromises on policy that win acceptance from many different groups.

Another function of the government is regulation of the economy: regulation of the production, distribution, and export of goods, allotting funds or subsidies for the support of agriculture, support of domestic manufacturers, the use of taxes and tariffs, the issuance of money, lending and insurance.

To some extent, all modern governments assume responsibility for protecting the political and social rights of their citizens. All modern governments participate directly in provision of goods and services. In addition to that, public functions include public education, fire protection, conservation of natural resources, flood control, postal services, the provision of health care, the operation of public transport facilities, airport and port maintenance, and watersupply systems.

(Adapted from: https://global.britannica.com/topic/political- system/The-functions-ofgovernment)

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Vocabulary to expand – расширяться emergence – появление

self-preservation – самосохранение

to command attachment – вселять привязанность/преданность

civil war – гражданская война

communal belonging – сплоченность общества; духовная близость

interlocking – взаимосвязанный; тесно переплетенный

commitment – приверженность; преданность intelligence activities – разведывательная деятельность

alien – иностранец; чужестранец to expel – высылать; выдворять

to embargo – накладывать эмбарго/запрет to aid – помогать

supervision and resolution of conflicts – контроль и разрешение конфликтов

public hearings – общественные слушания allotting funds – выделение средств issuance – выпуск

lending – кредитование insurance – страхование

maintenance – обслуживание; содержание

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