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LENS MANUAL

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F O U R T H E D I T I O N

THE CONTACT

LENS MANUAL

A P R A C T I C A L G U I D E T O F I T T I N G

Andrew Gasson

FCOptom, DCLP, FAAO

Contact Lens Practitioner, London, UK

Judith Morris

MSc, FCOptom, FAAO, FIACLE

City University, London, UK

Institute of Optometry, London, UK

Edinburgh  London  New York  Oxford Philadelphia  St Louis Sydney  Toronto 2010

An imprint of Elsevier Limited

© 2010, Andrew Gasson and Judith A. Morris. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

First edition 1992

Second edition 1998

Third edition 2003 (Reprinted 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008)

The right of Andrew Gasson and Judith Morris to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

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Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

With respect to any drug or pharmaceutical products identified, readers are advised to check the most current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of each product to be administered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and duration of administration, and contraindications. It is the responsibility of practitioners, relying on their own experience and knowledge of their patients, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages and the best treatment for each individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions.

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ISBN-13: 9780750675901

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Gasson, Andrew.

  The contact lens manual : a practical guide to fitting. – 4th ed.

1.  Contact lenses.  2.  Orthokeratology.

I.  Title  II.  Morris, Judith.

617.7523 – dc22

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

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Software Designer: Tony Hough

Marketing Managers (UK/USA):  

Richard Jones/Lynn Hoops

Contents

 

 

 

  Preface to the fourth edition

xi

 

 

 

  Preface to the first edition

xii

 

 

 

  Common Abbreviations

xiii

 

 

 

Section 1: Preliminaries

 

1.

Background

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.1

Applied anatomy

1

 

1.2

Applied physiology

4

 

1.3

Physical properties of materials

6

 

1.4

Manufacture of lenses

12

2.

Instrumentation

15

 

 

 

 

 

 

2.1

Slit lamp

15

 

2.2

Keratometers and autokeratometers

20

 

2.3

Corneal topographers

23

 

2.4

Anterior segment photography

31

 

2.5

Specialist instruments for higher magnificiation

33

 

2.6

Other instruments

34

3.

Record keeping

37

 

 

 

 

 

 

3.1

Legal implications

37

 

3.2

Record cards

42

 

3.3

Clinical grading

42

 

3.4

Computerization of patient records

44

4.

Consulting room procedures and equipment

47

 

 

4.1

Hygienic procedures to avoid cross-infection

47

 

4.2

Solutions and drugs

48

 

4.3

Decontamination and disinfection of trial lenses

51

 

4.4

Other procedures

53

 

4.5

Insertion and removal by the practitioner

54

5.

Preliminary considerations and examination

59

 

 

 

 

 

 

5.1

Discussion with the patient

59

 

5.2

Indications and contraindications

60

 

5.3

Advantages and disadvantages of lens types

63

 

5.4

Visual considerations

66

Contents

 

5.5

External eye examination

69

 

5.6

Patient suitability for lens types

72

6.

 

The tear film and dry eyes

75

 

 

 

 

 

 

6.1

The tear film

75

 

6.2

Dry eyes

76

 

6.3

Assessment of tears

79

 

6.4

Contact lens signs

86

 

6.5

Treatment and management

87

 

6.6

Contact lens management

92

7.

 

Lens types and materials

95

 

7.1

Rigid gas-permeable lenses

97

 

7.2

Polymethyl methacrylate

101

 

7.3

Soft lenses

101

 

7.4

Silicone hydrogels

105

 

7.5

Biocompatible lenses

107

 

7.6

Silicone lenses

107

 

 

 

Section 2: Rigid gas-permeable lens fitting

 

8.

Principles of rigid lens design

111

 

 

 

 

 

 

8.1

Basic principles of rigid lens design

111

 

8.2

Forces controlling design

111

 

8.3

Concept of edge lift

116

 

8.4

Tear layer thickness

119

 

8.5

Lid attachment lenses

120

 

8.6

Interpalpebral lenses

121

9.

 

Development of rigid lens design

123

 

9.1

Introduction

123

 

9.2

Current bicurve, tricurve and multicurve designs

124

 

9.3

Current aspheric lenses

128

 

9.4

Reverse geometry lenses

129

10.

 

Rigid lens selection and fitting

131

 

10.1

Introduction

131

 

10.2

Back optic zone radius (BOZR)

132

 

10.3

Total diameter (TD)

133

 

10.4

Back optic zone diameter (BOZD)

133

 

10.5

Peripheral curves

134

 

10.6

Back vertex power (BVP) and over-refraction

137

 

10.7

Lens design by corneal topographers

139

vi

Contents

11. Fluorescein patterns and fitting

141

 

 

 

 

11.1

Use of fluorescein

141

11.2

Examination techniques

142

11.3

Fitting

143

11.4

Correct fitting

144

11.5

Flat fitting

145

11.6

Steep fitting

146

11.7

Astigmatic fitting

148

11.8

Peripheral fitting

148

12. Aspheric lenses

151

 

 

 

 

12.1

Advantages and disadvantages of aspherics

151

12.2

Aspheric designs

152

12.3

Principles of fitting

156

12.4

Fluorescein patterns compared with spherical lenses

158

13. Rigid lens specification and verification

161

 

 

 

 

13.1

International standards

161

13.2

Examples of rigid lens types and fittings

162

13.3

Rigid lens verification

162

13.4

Tolerances

166

14.

 

 

Orthokeratology and reverse geometry lenses

169

 

14.1

Historical

169

 

14.2

Current approach

170

 

14.3

Reverse geometry lenses

172

 

14.4

Clinical appearance of reverse geometry lenses

178

 

14.5

Corneal topography

179

 

14.6

Fitting routine

180

 

 

 

Section 3: Hydrogel and silicone hydrogel fitting

 

15.

 

Soft lens fitting and design

187

 

 

 

 

 

 

15.1

Fitting considerations

187

 

15.2

Corneal diameter lenses

189

 

15.3

Semi-scleral lenses

193

16.

 

 

Soft lens fitting characteristics

199

 

16.1

Characteristics of a correct fitting

199

 

16.2

Characteristics of a tight fitting

200

 

16.3

Characteristics of a loose fitting

200

 

16.4

Summary of soft lens fitting characteristics

201

17.

 

 

Other soft lens fitting considerations

203

 

 

 

 

 

 

17.1

Lens power

203

vii

Contents

17.2

Lens flexibility and modulus of elasticity

204

17.3

Additional visual considerations

204

17.4

Thin lenses

206

17.5

Aspheric lenses

207

17.6

Spun-cast lenses

209

17.7

Unusual lens performance

211

18. Disposable lenses and frequent

 

 

(planned) replacement

213

18.1

Frequent replacement lenses

213

18.2

Disposable lenses

214

18.3

Types of disposable lens

215

18.4

Fitting disposable lenses

217

18.5

Aftercare with disposable lenses

217

18.6

Practice management

222

18.7

Other uses for disposable lenses

223

19. Silicone hydrogels

225

 

 

 

 

19.1

Fitting disposable silicone hydrogels

227

19.2

Fitting custom made silicone hydrogels

228

19.3

Complex lenses

229

19.4

Dispensing silicone hydrogels

230

19.5

Aftercare

230

20. Soft lens specification and verification

235

 

 

 

 

20.1

International standards and tolerances

235

20.2

Soft lens specification

235

20.3

Soft lens verification

235

21.

 

Extended wear

241

 

21.1

Physiological requirements

241

 

21.2

Approaches to extended wear

243

 

21.3

Patient selection

244

 

21.4

Soft lens fitting and problems

245

 

21.5

Rigid gas-permeable fitting and problems

248

 

21.6

Other lenses for extended wear

250

 

21.7

Long-term consequences of extended wear

250

 

 

 

Section 4: Complex lenses

 

22.

 

Toric rigid lenses

253

 

22.1

Residual and induced astigmatism

253

 

22.2

Patient selection

254

 

22.3

Lens designs

255

viii

Contents

 

22.4

Methods of stabilization

256

 

22.5

Fitting back surface torics

256

 

22.6

Fitting bitorics

259

 

22.7

Compromise back surface torics

259

 

22.8

Fitting front surface torics

260

 

22.9

Fitting toric peripheries

261

 

22.10

Computers in toric lens fitting

262

23.

 

 

Toric soft lenses

263

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

23.1

Patient selection

263

 

23.2

Stabilization

264

 

23.3

Lens designs

268

 

23.4

Fitting

271

 

23.5

Fitting examples

273

24.

 

 

Lenses for presbyopia

277

 

24.1

Patient selection

277

 

24.2

Monovision

278

 

24.3

Presbyopic lens designs

280

 

24.4

Fitting rigid multifocals and bifocals

282

 

24.5

Fitting soft bifocals

288

25.

 

 

Special lens features and applications

295

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

25.1

Lens identification

295

 

25.2

Tinted, cosmetic and prosthetic lenses

296

 

25.3

Fenestration

300

 

25.4

Overseas prescriptions

301

 

25.5

Contact lenses and sport

301

 

 

 

Section 5: Management

 

26.

 

Care systems

305

 

 

 

 

 

 

26.1

Components of solutions

305

 

26.2

Solution for soft lenses

309

 

26.3

Disinfection

309

 

26.4

Solutions for rigid gas-permeable lenses

315

 

26.5

Compliance and product misuse

318

27.

 

 

Lens collection and patient instruction

319

 

 

 

 

 

 

27.1

Lens collection

319

 

27.2

Insertion and removal

319

 

27.3

Suggested wearing schedules

322

 

27.4

General patient advice

322

ix

Contents

28. Aftercare

325

 

 

 

 

28.1

First aftercare visit

325

28.2

Visual problems

329

28.3

Wearing problems

331

28.4

Aftercare at yearly intervals or longer

341

29. Aftercare complications

345

 

 

 

 

29.1

Emergencies and infections

345

29.2

Grief cases (drop outs)

351

29.3

Side effects of systemic drugs

353

29.4

Lens ageing

353

30.

 

 

Additional aftercare procedures

359

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

30.1

Refitting PMMA wearers

359

 

30.2

Prescribing spectacles for contact lens wearers

362

 

30.3

Rigid lens modification

364

 

 

 

Section 6: Children and therapeutic lenses

 

31.

 

Contact lenses and children

367

 

31.1

Management

367

 

31.2

Instrumentation

369

 

31.3

Non-therapeutic fitting

369

 

31.4

Refractive applications

370

 

31.5

Therapeutic applications

371

32.

 

 

Therapeutic and complex lens designs

375

 

 

 

 

 

 

32.1

High myopia and hypermetropia

376

 

32.2

Keratoconus

376

 

32.3

Aphakia

386

 

32.4

Corneal grafts (keratoplasty)

390

 

32.5

Corneal irregularity

391

 

32.6

Albinos

391

 

32.7

Radial keratotomy and photo-refractive keratectomy

391

 

32.8

Combination lenses

392

 

32.9

Silicone rubber lenses

393

 

32.10

Bandage lenses

394

 

32.11

Additional therapeutic uses

395

 

 

 

 

  Appendix 1

397

 

 

 

 

  Appendix 2 Useful contact lens internet sites

401

 

 

 

 

  Glossary of contact lens-related terms

405

 

 

 

 

  Index

417

x

Preface to the fourth edition

This new edition of The Contact Lens Manual brings it up to date with the numerous changes which have occurred in the contact lens field since the third edition was published in 2003. The essential format of the book remains the same with a deliberately concise, practical approach to fitting and aftercare, assisted by the newly designed full colour layout.

Disposable lenses continue to dominate contact lens practice and the relevant chapters have been considerably enlarged to indicate the comprehensive range now available as well as their use for toric and multifocal lenses. The section on silicone hydrogels has also been rewritten to reflect their increasing preference as lenses of first choice. Orthokeratology has acquired its own niche in contact lens practice and Chapter 14 takes account of the several different fitting approaches now available. The Glossary and Commonly Used Abbreviations have also been updated.

Dry eyes have become an important topic which has been expanded into a new chapter to reflect current thinking whilst the all important subject of aftercare has been reorganised into three separate chapters. Scleral lenses are now omitted as they are rarely fitted in everyday practice and in most cases modern mini-scleral or combination lenses can achieve the same result.

Terminology remains in line with generally accepted practice for ocular infections and inflammatory responses. We have – a little reluctantly – adopted the general description ‘rigid’ rather than ‘hard’ to describe both gas-permeable and the almost obsolete PMMA; the term ‘soft lenses’ now includes both hydrogel and silicone hydrogel. All lenses are specified in accordance with European and international standards.

The content of the CD-ROM which accompanies The Manual continues to give a wide variety of interactive lens types. There are several additions to the more than 100 photographic colour images which complement the text by illustrating numerous conditions and aftercare problems. There are also various contact lens fluorescein fittings and the newly introduced videos illustrate some of the ‘dos and don’ts’ of contact lens practice.

We would once again thank Tony Hough for his help with all things digital and for his assistance in the production of the CD-ROM. As ever, it proves impossible to give examples of every contact lens product but we are indebted to all the laboratories which have been so helpful in providing current and in many cases advance information.

APG

JAM

Preface to the first edition

The Manual is designed as an essentially practical guide to all aspects of contact lens fitting. It follows the authors’ own approach to patient management, initial assessment and lens selection as well as giving detailed fitting procedures for both basic and complex lenses. Significant space is allocated to aftercare as this is considered an inextricably linked continuation of fitting, whereas theoretical aspects have been kept deliberately concise, supplemented by detailed references and suggestions for further reading.

The introductory chapters and basic fitting are directed mainly at the student or practitioner without recent experience. The Manual, however, also covers advanced fitting techniques for the more experienced and the specialist sections on therapeutic lenses and the management of children requiring contact lenses should be of interest both to hospital fitters and to those who encounter the occasional medical case.

Terminology is based on the relatively new British and International Standards. The most common lens types are referred to as either ‘hard’ or ‘soft’. The term ‘hard’ has been used throughout to indicate specifically modern materials which have been described elsewhere as ‘gas-permeable’. PMMA is now considered a little-fitted sub-group.

Inevitably, it is impossible to include details of every lens or solution currently available and the authors have been forced to select representative examples. Mention of a particular product is not intended as an endorsement and any omission, however obvious, should not be construed as an implied criticism.

Finally, the authors would like to acknowledge all of the contact lens companies which have kindly made available detailed information concerning their products; the ACLM for the use of their materials classification system; AllerganHydron, Bausch & Lomb and Igel International for their permission to reproduce tables and illustrations; Tony Hough of Microturn for his assistance in producing tear lens thickness diagrams; Ken Pullum for providing the basis of the section on scleral lenses and for his diagrams; and to the publishers for their constant help and encouragement.

 

Common abbreviations

 

 

in contact lens practice

 

 

 

 

AEL

Axial edge lift

AI

Asymptomatic infiltrates

AIK

Asymptomatic infiltrative keratitis

BC

Base curve

BOZD

Back optic zone diameter

BOZR

Back optic zone radius

BSR

Back scleral radius

BSS

Back scleral size

BUT

Break up time

BVD

Back vertex distance

BVP

Back vertex power

CAB

Cellulose acetate butyrate

CAEL

Constant axial edge lift

CD

Centre distance

CLAPC

Contact lens associated papillary conjunctivitis

CLARE

Contact lens acute red eye

CLIPC

Contact lens induced papillary conjunctivitis

CLPU

Contact lens peripheral ulcer

CLSLK

Contact lens induced superior limbic keratoconjunctivitis

CN

Centre near

CRT

Corneal refractive therapy

D

Displacement

Dk

Oxygen permeability

Dk/t

Oxygen transmissibility

e

Eccentricity

Ec

Edge clearance

EOP

Equivalent oxygen pressure

EW

Extended Wear

FDA

Food and Drugs Authority

FLOM

Fenestrated lens for optic measurement

FOZD

Front optic zone diameter

GPC

Giant papillary conjunctivitis

HEMA

Hydroxyethyl methacrylate

HPMC

Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose

HVID

Horizontal visible iris diameter

IK

Infiltrativive keratitus

LIPCOF

Lid Parallel conjunctival folds

Common abbreviations in contact lens practice

MDD

Medical Devices Directive

MGD

Meibomian gland dysfunction

MK

Microbial keratitis

MPS

Multipurpose Solution

MRDT

Minimum recommended disinfection time

NIBUT

Non-invasive break up time

OK

Orthokeratology

OTC

Over the counter medication

OVC

Overnight vision correction

p

Corneal shape factor

PHMB

Polyhexamethylene biguanide

PLTF

Pre lens tear film

PMMA

Poly methyl methacrylate

POD

Primary optic diameter

POM

Prescription only medication

PRK

Photorefractive keratectomy

PVA

Poly vinyl alcohol

PVP

Poly vinyl pyrrolidone

RGP

Rigid gas permeable

RK

Radial keratotomy

SEAL

Superficial epithelial arcuate lesion

Si-Hy

Silicone Hydrogel

SICS

Solution induced corneal staining

TBUT

Tear break up time

tc

Centre thickness

te

Edge thickness

TLT

Tear lens thickness

TR

Tear reservoir

ULMS

Upper lid margin staining

USAN

United States Adopted Name

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