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Файл:Ординатура / Офтальмология / Учебные материалы / Section 3 Clinical Optics 2015-2016.pdf
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- •Contents
- •General Introduction
- •Objectives
- •1 Geometric Optics
- •Rays, Refraction, and Reflection
- •Introduction
- •Point Sources, Pencils, and Beams of Light
- •Object Characteristics
- •Image Characteristics
- •Magnification
- •Image Location
- •Depth of Focus
- •Image Quality
- •Light Propagation
- •Optical Media and Refractive Index
- •Law of Rectilinear Propagation
- •Optical Interfaces
- •Law of Reflection (Specular Reflection)
- •Law of Refraction (Specular Transmission)
- •Normal Incidence
- •Total Internal Reflection
- •Dispersion
- •Reflection and Refraction at Curved Surfaces
- •The Fermat Principle
- •Pinhole Imaging
- •Locating the Image: The Lensmaker’s Equation
- •Ophthalmic Lenses
- •Vergence
- •Reduced Vergence
- •Thin-Lens Approximation
- •Lens Combinations
- •Virtual Images and Objects
- •Focal Points and Planes
- •Paraxial Ray Tracing Through Convex Spherical Lenses
- •Paraxial Ray Tracing Through Concave Spherical Lenses
- •Objects and Images at Infinity
- •Principal Planes and Points
- •Section Exercises
- •Focal Lengths
- •Gaussian Reduction
- •Knapp’s Law, the Badal Principle, and the Lensmeter
- •Afocal Systems
- •Section Exercises
- •Questions
- •Power of a Lens in a Medium
- •Spherical Interface and Thick Lenses
- •Thick Lens
- •Back Vertex Power Is Not True Power
- •Aberrations of Ophthalmic Lenses
- •Third-Order Seidel Aberrations
- •Chromatic Aberrations
- •Avoiding Aberrations
- •Mirrors
- •Reflection From a Plane Mirror
- •Spherically Curved Mirrors
- •Reversal of the Image Space
- •The Central Ray for Mirrors
- •Vergence Calculations for Mirrors
- •Spherocylindrical Lenses
- •Combination of Spherocylindrical Lenses
- •The Conoid of Sturm
- •The Jackson Cross Cylinder
- •Prisms
- •Prism Diopter
- •Prismatic Effect of Lenses and the Prentice Rule
- •Prism Aberrations
- •Fresnel Prisms
- •Chapter Exercises
- •Questions
- •Appendix 1.1
- •Quick Review of Angles, Trigonometry, and the Pythagorean Theorem
- •Appendix 1.2
- •Light Properties and First-Order Optics
- •2 Optics of the Human Eye
- •The Human Eye as an Optical System
- •Schematic Eyes
- •Important Axes of the Eye
- •Pupil Size and Its Effect on Visual Resolution
- •Visual Acuity
- •Contrast Sensitivity and the Contrast Sensitivity Function
- •Refractive States of the Eyes
- •Binocular States of the Eyes
- •Accommodation and Presbyopia
- •Epidemiology of Refractive Errors
- •Developmental Myopia
- •Developmental Hyperopia
- •Prevention of Refractive Errors
- •Chapter Exercises
- •Questions
- •3 Clinical Refraction
- •Objective Refraction Technique: Retinoscopy
- •Positioning and Alignment
- •Fixation and Fogging
- •The Retinal Reflex
- •The Correcting Lens
- •Finding Neutrality
- •Retinoscopy of Regular Astigmatism
- •Aberrations of the Retinoscopic Reflex
- •Subjective Refraction Techniques
- •Astigmatic Dial Technique
- •Stenopeic Slit Technique
- •Cross-Cylinder Technique
- •Refining the Sphere
- •Binocular Balance
- •Cycloplegic and Noncycloplegic Refraction
- •Overrefraction
- •Spectacle Correction of Ametropias
- •Spherical Correcting Lenses and the Far Point Concept
- •The Importance of Vertex Distance
- •Cylindrical Correcting Lenses and the Far Point Concept
- •Prescribing for Children
- •Myopia
- •Hyperopia
- •Anisometropia
- •Clinical Accommodative Problems
- •Presbyopia
- •Accommodative Insufficiency
- •Accommodative Excess
- •Accommodative Convergence/Accommodation Ratio
- •Effect of Spectacle and Contact Lens Correction on Accommodation and Convergence
- •Prescribing Multifocal Lenses
- •Determining the Add Power of a Bifocal Lens
- •Types of Bifocal Lenses
- •Trifocal Lenses
- •Progressive Addition Lenses
- •The Prentice Rule and Bifocal Lens Design
- •Occupation and Bifocal Segment
- •Prescribing Special Lenses
- •Aphakic Lenses
- •Absorptive Lenses
- •Special Lens Materials
- •Therapeutic Use of Prisms
- •Chapter Exercises
- •Questions
- •Appendix 3.1
- •Common Guidelines for Prescribing Cylinders for Spectacle Correction
- •4 Contact Lenses
- •Introduction
- •Contact Lens Glossary
- •Clinically Important Features of Contact Lens Optics
- •Field of Vision
- •Image Size
- •Accommodation
- •Convergence Demands
- •Tear Lens
- •Correcting Astigmatism
- •Correcting Presbyopia
- •Contact Lens Materials and Manufacturing
- •Materials
- •Manufacturing
- •Patient Examination and Contact Lens Selection
- •Patient Examination
- •Contact Lens Selection
- •Contact Lens Fitting
- •Soft Contact Lenses
- •Rigid Gas-Permeable Contact Lenses
- •Toric Soft Contact Lenses
- •Contact Lenses for Presbyopia
- •Keratoconus and the Abnormal Cornea
- •Contact Lens Overrefraction
- •Gas-Permeable Scleral Contact Lenses
- •Therapeutic Lens Usage
- •Orthokeratology and Corneal Reshaping
- •Custom Contact Lenses and Wavefront Technology
- •Contact Lens Care and Solutions
- •Contact Lens–Related Problems and Complications
- •Infections
- •Hypoxic/Metabolic Problems
- •Toxicity
- •Mechanical Problems
- •Inflammation
- •Chapter Exercises
- •Questions
- •Appendix 4.1
- •Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus in Contact Lens Care
- •Appendix 4.2
- •Federal Law and Contact Lenses
- •5 Intraocular Lenses
- •Intraocular Lens Designs
- •Classification
- •Background
- •Optical Considerations for Intraocular Lenses
- •Intraocular Lens Power Calculation
- •Piggyback and Supplemental Intraocular Lenses
- •Intraocular Lens Power Calculation After Corneal Refractive Surgery
- •Instrument Error
- •Index of Refraction Error
- •Formula Error
- •Power Calculation Methods for the Post–Keratorefractive Procedure Eye
- •Intraocular Lens Power in Corneal Transplant Eyes
- •Silicone Oil Eyes
- •Pediatric Eyes
- •Image Magnification
- •Lens-Related Vision Disturbances
- •Nonspherical Optics
- •Multifocal Intraocular Lenses
- •Types of Multifocal Intraocular Lenses
- •Clinical Results of Multifocal Intraocular Lenses
- •Accommodating Intraocular Lenses
- •Intraocular Lens Standards
- •Chapter Exercises
- •Questions
- •Appendix 5.1
- •History of Intraocular Lens Design
- •6 Optical Considerations in Keratorefractive Surgery
- •Corneal Shape
- •Angle Kappa
- •Pupil Size
- •Irregular Astigmatism
- •Application of Wavefront Analysis in Irregular Astigmatism
- •Causes of Irregular Astigmatism
- •Conclusion
- •Chapter Exercises
- •Questions
- •7 Optical Instruments and Low Vision Aids
- •Magnification
- •Telescopes
- •Galilean Telescope
- •Astronomical Telescope
- •Accommodation Through a Telescope
- •Surgical Loupe
- •General Principles of Optical Engineering
- •Terminology
- •Measurements of Performance of Optical Systems
- •Optical Instruments and Techniques Used in Ophthalmic Practice
- •Direct Ophthalmoscope
- •Indirect Ophthalmoscope
- •Fundus Camera
- •Slit-Lamp Biomicroscope
- •Gonioscopy
- •Surgical Microscope
- •Geneva Lens Clock
- •Lensmeter
- •Knapp’s Rule
- •Optical Pachymeter
- •Applanation Tonometry
- •Specular Microscopy
- •Keratometer
- •Topography
- •Ultrasonography of the Eye and Orbit
- •Macular Function Tests
- •Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopes
- •Scheimpflug Camera
- •Autorefractors
- •Optical Coherence Tomography
- •Optical Aids
- •Magnifiers
- •Telescopes
- •Prisms
- •High-Add Spectacles
- •Nonoptical Aids
- •Electronic Devices
- •Lighting, Glare Control, and Contrast Enhancement
- •Nonvisual Assistance
- •Eccentric Viewing or Fixation Training
- •Instruction and Training
- •Chapter Exercises
- •Questions
- •Appendix 7.1
- •Approach to the Patient With Low Vision
- •8 Physical Optics
- •The Corpuscular Theory of Light
- •Diffraction
- •The Speed of Light
- •The Superposition of Waves
- •Coherence
- •Electromagnetic Waves
- •Polarization
- •Refractive Index and Dispersion
- •Reflection, Transmission, and Absorption
- •The Electromagnetic Spectrum
- •Frequency and Color
- •Energy in an Electromagnetic Wave
- •Quantum Theory
- •Light Sources
- •Thermal Sources
- •Luminescent Sources
- •Fluorescence
- •Phosphorescence
- •Lasers
- •Light–Tissue Interactions
- •Photocoagulation
- •Photoablation
- •Photodisruption
- •Photoactivation
- •Light Scattering
- •Rayleigh Scattering
- •Mie Scattering
- •The Tyndall Effect
- •Radiometry and Photometry
- •Light Hazards
- •Clinical Applications
- •Polarization
- •Interference
- •Diffraction
- •Imaging and the Point Spread Function
- •Image Quality—Modulation Transfer Function
- •Chapter Exercises
- •Questions
- •Appendix 8.1
- •Radiometric and Photometric Units
- •Basic Texts
- •Related Academy Materials
- •Requesting Continuing Medical Education Credit
Section Exercises
Questions
1.13. Calculate the magnification if an image is located 20 cm behind the lens and the object is located 40 cm in front of the lens (Fig 1-44).
Show Answer
1.14. Calculate the magnification of a Galilean telescope with a +3 D objective and a –12 D eyepiece (Fig 1-45).
Show Answer
1.15.Calculate the length of the Galilean telescope shown in Figure 1-45. Show Answer
1.16.Calculate the magnification of a Keplerian telescope with a +3 D objective and a +12 D eyepiece (Fig 1-46).
Show Answer
1.17. Calculate the length of the Keplerian telescope shown in Figure 1-46. Show Answer
Figure 1-44 Magnification calculation. Image is located 20 cm behind the lens. Object is located 40 cm in front of the lens. The image is minified and inverted.
Figure 1-45 Galilean telescope. (Illustration developed b y Dimitri T. Azar, MD, and rendered b y Joelle Hallak.)
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