- •Retinal Vein Occlusions
- •Preface
- •Acknowledgments
- •Contents
- •1.1 Anatomy and Histology
- •1.2 Microanatomy of the Retina
- •1.3 Vascular Anatomy
- •Bernoulli’s Principle and Deductions Concerning Changes in Central Retinal Vein Diameter at the Lamina Cribrosa
- •1.4 Pathologic Anatomy
- •1.4.1 Abnormalities of the Vessel Wall
- •1.4.2 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •1.4.3 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •1.4.4 Hemicentral Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •1.5 Summary of Key Points
- •References
- •2.1 Abnormalities of the Blood
- •2.1.1 Thrombosis
- •2.1.2 Viscosity of Blood
- •2.2 Abnormalities of Blood Flow
- •2.2.1 Retinal Vascular Hemodynamics
- •2.2.1.1 Laplace’s Law
- •2.2.1.2 Poiseuille’s Law
- •A Misapplication of Poiseuille’s Law
- •2.2.1.3 Hemodynamics of Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •How Severe Must Central Venous Obstruction Be to Produce Symptoms?
- •The Central Retinal Artery in Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •2.2.1.4 Hemodynamics of BRVO
- •2.3 Macular Edema
- •2.3.1 Macular Anatomy and Its Relationship to Macular Edema in Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •2.3.2 Starling’s Law
- •2.3.3 The Retinal Pigment Epithelial Pump
- •2.3.4 Molecular Signaling in Macular Edema
- •Relevant Molecular Biologic Terminology
- •2.3.4.1 Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor
- •2.3.4.2 Other Retinal Cytokines with Lesser Roles
- •2.3.4.3 Molecular Signaling in BRVO
- •2.3.4.4 Molecular Signaling in CRVO
- •What Does the Response of RVO to Intravitreal Anti-VEGF Drugs Say About Pathophysiology?
- •2.4 Retinal Neovascularization
- •Spontaneous Venous Pulsations and CRVO
- •2.7 Animal Models of Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •2.7.1 Animal Models of BRVO
- •2.7.2 Animal Models of CRVO
- •2.8 Summary of Key Points
- •2.9 Future Directions
- •References
- •3.1 Background for Clinical Genetics
- •3.2 The Role of Polymorphisms in Genetic Studies
- •3.3 Types of Genetic Study Design
- •Why Are So Many Association Studies for Retinal Vein Occlusion Negative?
- •3.4 Studies of the Genetics of Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •3.4.1 Platelet Glycoprotein Receptor Genes
- •3.4.2.1 Pooled Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •3.4.2.2 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •3.4.2.3 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •3.4.4 202210G > A Mutation of the Prothrombin Gene (Factor II Leiden)
- •3.4.6 Protein C
- •3.4.7 Protein S
- •3.4.8 Fibrinogen
- •3.4.9 Factor XII
- •3.4.12 Other Negative Genetic Association Studies
- •3.5 Summary of Key Points
- •References
- •4.1 Nosology of Retinal Vein Occlusions
- •4.2 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •4.3 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •Central Retinal Vein Occlusion with Nonischemic and Ischemic Hemispheres
- •4.3.1 Conversion from Nonischemic to Ischemic Forms of Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •4.4 Summary of Key Points
- •References
- •Quantifying Risk
- •The Major Epidemiologic Studies of Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.2 Prevalence
- •5.2.1 Pooled Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.2.2 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.2.3 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.2.4 Hemicentral Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.3 Incidence
- •5.3.1 Pooled Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.3.2 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.3.3 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.4 Risk and Protective Factors for Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.4.1.1 Pooled Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.4.1.2 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.4.1.3 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.4.1.4 Hemicentral Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.4.2 Gender
- •5.4.2.1 Pooled Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.4.2.2 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.4.2.3 CRVO
- •5.4.2.4 Hemicentral Retinal Vein Occlusions
- •5.4.3 Race
- •5.4.4 Laterality
- •5.4.5 Body Mass Index
- •5.4.6 Education
- •5.4.7 Physical Activity
- •5.4.8 Miscellaneous Factors Explored and Not Found Important
- •5.5.1 Pooled Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.5.2 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.5.3 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.5.4 Hemicentral Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •5.6 Life Expectancy
- •5.7 Visual Impact of Retinal Vein Occlusions
- •5.8 Summary of Key Points
- •References
- •6.1 Introduction
- •6.2 Systemic Associations
- •6.2.1 Hypertension
- •6.2.1.1 Pooled Retinal Vein Occlusions
- •6.2.1.2 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •6.2.1.3 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •6.2.2 Diabetes Mellitus
- •6.2.2.1 Pooled Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •6.2.2.2 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •6.2.2.3 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •6.2.3 Hyperlipidemia
- •6.2.3.1 Pooled Retinal Vein Occlusions
- •6.2.3.2 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •6.2.3.3 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •6.2.4 Cardiovascular Disease
- •6.2.4.1 Pooled Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •6.2.4.2 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •6.2.4.3 Central and Hemicentral Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •6.2.4.4 Stroke
- •6.2.4.5 Carotid Artery Disease and Peripheral Vascular Disease
- •6.2.5 Rheologic and Hematologic Abnormalities
- •6.2.6 Coagulation Abnormalities
- •6.2.6.1 Antiphospholipid Antibodies
- •6.2.6.2 Factor VII
- •6.2.6.3 Factor VIII
- •6.2.6.4 Lipoprotein a
- •6.2.6.5 Von Willebrand Factor
- •6.2.6.6 Other Coagulation Factors
- •6.2.7 Hyperhomocysteinemia
- •6.2.7.1 Pooled Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •6.2.7.2 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •6.2.7.3 Central and Hemicentral Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •6.2.8 Serum Folate
- •6.2.9 Serum B12
- •6.2.10 Smoking
- •6.2.11 Alcohol Consumption
- •6.2.14 No Underlying Vascular Risk Factor
- •6.3 Ocular Associations
- •6.3.1 Pooled Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •6.3.2 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •6.3.3 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion and Hemicentral Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •6.4 Practical Recommendations About the Systemic Workup of Patients with Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •History of the Standard Workup for Systemic Associations in Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •6.5 Retinal Vein Occlusion and Cardiovascular Disease Risk
- •6.6 Differences in Systemic Associations Between Ischemic and Nonischemic CRVOs
- •6.7 Summary of Key Points
- •References
- •7.1 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •7.1.1 Acute Phase
- •7.1.1.1 Symptoms
- •7.1.2 Clinical Signs
- •7.1.2.1 Visual Acuity
- •7.1.3 Chronic Phase
- •7.1.3.1 Clinical Signs
- •7.1.3.2 Visual Acuity
- •Why Does the Visual Outcome in Nonischemic, Macula-Involving Branch Retinal Vein Occlusions Usually Vary with the Size of the Involved Retina?
- •7.2 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •7.2.1 Acute Phase
- •7.2.1.1 Symptoms
- •7.2.1.2 Clinical Signs
- •When Retinal Venous Congestion and Optic Disc Edema Are Not Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •What Is the Relationship of Central Retinal Artery Pressure and Cilioretinal Artery Pressure?
- •Retinal Whitening Does Not Equal Infarction
- •A Clinical Picture Predicted by a Hypothesis
- •7.2.1.3 Visual Acuity
- •7.2.2 Chronic Phase
- •Why Are Optic Disc Collaterals Associated with Worse Initial and Final Visual Acuity After CRVO?
- •7.2.2.1 Visual Acuity
- •7.3 Hemicentral Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •7.3.1 Clinical Signs
- •7.3.2 Visual Acuity
- •7.4 Summary of Key Points
- •References
- •Which Measure of Reproducibility Is Best?
- •8.1 Color Fundus Photography
- •8.2 Fluorescein Angiography
- •8.2.1 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •8.2.2 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •8.3 Optical Coherence Tomography and the Retinal Thickness Analyzer
- •Methods of Analysis of OCT in RVO
- •8.4 Visual Field Testing
- •8.5 Electroretinography
- •Electroretinography Essentials for Retinal Vein Occlusions
- •8.5.1 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •8.5.2 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •8.5.3 Hemicentral Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •8.6 Indocyanine Green Angiography
- •8.7 Color Doppler Ultrasonographic Imaging
- •8.8 Laser Doppler Flowmetry
- •8.9 Ophthalmodynamometry
- •8.10 Scanning Laser Doppler Flowmetry
- •8.11 Laser Interferometry to Measure Pulsatile Choroidal Blood Flow
- •8.12 Vitreous Fluorophotometry
- •8.13 Summary of Key Points
- •References
- •9.1 Terminology
- •9.2 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •9.3 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •9.3.1 Clinical Characteristics
- •In the Face of Evidence that Fluorescein Angiography Is Poorly Predictive of Ischemia in Acute Central Retinal Vein Occlusion, Why Is It Widely Used?
- •9.3.2 Conversion from Nonischemic to Ischemic Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •9.3.3 Outcomes by Ischemic Status
- •9.4 Interaction of Ischemia with Effects of Treatments
- •9.4.1 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •9.4.2 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •9.5 Summary of Key Points
- •References
- •10.1 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •10.2 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •10.3 Hemicentral Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •10.4 Treatment of Posterior Segment Neovascularization in Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •10.5 Summary of Key Points
- •References
- •11.1 The Pathoanatomy and Pathophysiology of Iris and Angle Neovascularization
- •11.2 Clinical Picture of Anterior Segment Neovascularization
- •11.4 Anterior Segment Neovascularization in Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •11.5 Anterior Segment Neovascularization in Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •The Problem of Undetected Anterior Segment Neovascularization After Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •Why Is Anterior Segment Neovascularization Less Common in Central Retinal Vein Occlusion Than in Central Retinal Artery Occlusion?
- •11.6 Anterior Segment Neovascularization in Hemicentral Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •11.7 Summary of Key Points
- •References
- •12.1 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion with Macular Edema
- •12.2 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion with Macular Edema
- •12.3 Summary of Key Points
- •References
- •Visual Acuity Measurement in Treatment Studies
- •OCT Measurement of Macular Thickness in Treatment Studies
- •13.1 Medical Treatment of Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •13.1.1 Anticoagulation
- •13.1.2 Systemic Thrombolytic Therapy
- •13.1.3 Isovolumic Hemodilution
- •Recipe for Isovolumic Hemodilution
- •13.1.4 Plasmapheresis
- •13.2 Treatment of Previously Unsuspected Risk Factors for Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •13.3.1 Treatments for Macular Edema
- •Relative Corticosteroid Potencies
- •13.3.2 Treatments for Intraocular Neovascularization
- •13.4 Results of Clinical Studies of Treatments for Macular Edema Secondary to Retinal Vein Occlusions
- •13.4.1 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •13.4.1.1 Grid Laser
- •13.4.1.2 Subthreshold Grid Laser Treatment
- •13.4.1.3 Sector Panretinal Laser Photocoagulation
- •13.4.1.5 Posterior Subtenon’s Triamcinolone
- •13.4.1.6 Intravitreal Corticosteroids
- •13.4.1.7 Combination Treatments Involving Intravitreal Triamcinolone Injections
- •13.4.1.8 Arteriovenous Sheathotomy
- •13.4.1.9 Vitrectomy
- •13.4.1.10 Intravitreal Injection of Autologous Plasmin
- •13.4.2 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •13.4.2.2 Combination Regimen: Bevacizumab, Panretinal Laser, and Grid Laser
- •13.4.2.3 Systemic Corticosteroids
- •13.4.2.4 Posterior Subtenon’s Triamcinolone Injection
- •13.4.2.5 Intravitreal Corticosteroids
- •13.4.2.6 Vitrectomy
- •13.5 Treatment of Intraocular Neovascularization
- •13.5.1 Sector Panretinal Laser Photocoagulation for Retinal and Disc Neovascularization After Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •13.5.2 Vitrectomy for Intraocular Neovascularization with Vitreous Hemorrhage
- •13.5.3 Laser Panretinal Photocoagulation for Anterior Segment Neovascularization
- •13.6 Economic Considerations
- •13.7 Future Directions
- •13.8 Summary of Key Points
- •References
- •14.1 Pooled Retinal Vein Occlusions in the Young
- •14.2 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion in Younger Patients
- •14.3 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion in Younger Patients
- •14.4 Workup in the Younger Patient with Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •14.5 Summary of Key Points
- •References
- •15.1 Failed and Unadopted Treatments for Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •15.1.1 Sector Panretinal Laser Photocoagulation for Serous Retinal Detachment in Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •15.1.2 Laser Chorioretinal Venous Anastomosis for Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion with Macular Edema
- •15.1.3 Intravenous Infusion of Tissue Plasminogen Activator
- •15.1.4 Intravitreal Injection of Tissue Plasminogen Activator
- •15.1.5 Macular Puncture for Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion with Macular Edema
- •15.2 Failed and Unadopted Treatments for Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •15.2.1 Grid Laser for Macular Edema in Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •15.2.2 Chorioretinal Venous Anastomosis for Nonischemic Central Retinal Vein Occlusion with Macular Edema
- •15.2.3 Radial Optic Neurotomy for Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •15.2.4 Retinal Endovascular Surgery with Intravenous Injection of Tissue Plasminogen Activator
- •15.2.5 Intravitreal Injection of Tissue Plasminogen Activator
- •15.2.6 Intravitreal Tissue Plasminogen Activator and Triamcinolone
- •15.2.7 Systemic Acetazolamide for Central Retinal Vein Occlusion with ME
- •15.2.8 Combined Central Retinal Vein Occlusion and Central Retinal Artery Occlusion
- •15.2.9 Optic Nerve Sheath Decompression
- •15.2.10 Section of the Posterior Scleral Ring
- •15.2.11 Infusion of High Molecular Weight Dextran
- •15.3 Failed and Unadopted Treatments for HCRVO
- •15.4 Summary of Key Points
- •References
- •16.1 Case 16.1: An Asymptomatic Central Retinal Vein Occlusion with Asymmetric Hemispheric Involvement
- •16.1.1 Discussion
- •16.2 Case 16.2: Chronic Macular Branch Vein Occlusion with Subtle Ophthalmoscopic Signs, More Obvious Fluorescein Angiographic Signs, and Macular Edema
- •16.2.1 Discussion
- •16.3 Case 16.3: Old Hemicentral Retinal Vein Occlusion with Late Vitreous Hemorrhage and Hyphema
- •16.3.1 Discussion
- •16.4 Case 16.4: Spontaneous Improvement of a Nonischemic Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •16.4.1 Discussion
- •16.5 Case 16.5: Conversion of a Nonischemic Hemicentral Retinal Vein Occlusion to an Ischemic One
- •16.5.1 Discussion
- •16.6 Case 16.6: Nonarteritic Ischemic Optic Neuropathy Following Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •16.6.1 Discussion
- •16.7 Case 16.7: Differentiating Central Retinal Vein Occlusion from the Ischemic Ocular Syndrome
- •16.7.1 Discussion
- •16.8 Case 16.8: Late Development of Neovascularization Elsewhere After Ischemic Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
- •16.8.1 Discussion
- •16.9 Case 16.9: Nonischemic Central Retinal Vein Occlusion with Secondary Branch Retinal Artery Occlusion
- •16.9.1 Discussion
- •16.10 Case 16.10: Nonischemic Central Retinal Vein Occlusion with Macular Edema or Asymmetric Diabetic Retinopathy with Diabetic Macular Edema?
- •16.10.1 Discussion
- •16.11 Summary of Key Points
- •References
- •Index
Retinal Vein Occlusions
David J. Browning
Retinal Vein Occlusions
Evidence-Based Management
David J. Browning MD, PhD
Charlotte Eye Ear Nose & Throat
Associates
Charlotte, North Carolina
USA
ISBN 978-1-4614-3438-2 ISBN 978-1-4614-3439-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3439-9
Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London
Library of Congress Control Number: 2012939487
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To my wife,
Clare Pautler Browning
