Table 5.3. Frequency of cortical/leptomeningeal venous drainage and associated hemorrhage

In summary, lacking accurate data, only limited knowledge on prevalence and natural history in patients harboring DCSFs exist. Larger studies with long-term follow-up of patients, not undergoing any sort of treatment including manual compression therapy, will be needed to obtain reliable information on the natural course of the disease. The term “benign” fistula, referring to a generally milder clinical course, does not appear suitable and should be reserved for diseases of that biological nature.

References

Agid R, et al. (2009) Management strategies for anterior cranial fossa (ethmoidal) dural arteriovenous fistulas with an emphasis on endovascular treatment. J Neurosurg. 110(1):79–84.

Ambler MW, Moon AC, Sturner WQ (1978) Bilateral ca- rotid-cavernous fistulae of mixed types with unusual radiological and neuropathological findings. J Neurosurg 48:117–124

Aminoff MJ (1973) Vascular anomalies in the intracranial dura mater. Brain 96:601–612

Andoh T, Nakashima T, Araki Y, Sakai N, Yamada H, Kagawa Y, Hirata T, Tanabe Y, Takada M (1991) Spontaneous ca- rotid-cavernous sinus fistula; analysis of 16 cases. No Shinkei Geka 19:831–839

Awad IA, et al. (1990) Intracranial dural arteriovenous malformations: factors predisposing to an aggressive neurological course. J Neurosurg 72:839–850

Barcio-Salorio JL, Barcia JA, Soler FM (2000) Radiosurgery for carotid-cavernous fistulas. In: Eisenberg MB, Al Mefty O (eds) The cavernous sinus. Lippincott Williams & Williams, Philadelphia, pp 227–242

Barr JD, Mathis JM, Horton JA (1995) Iatrogenic carotid-cav- ernous fistula occurring after embolization of a cavernous sinus meningioma. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 16:483–485

Barrow DL, Spector RH, Braun IF, Landman JA, Tindall SC, Tindall GT (1985) Classification and treatment of spontaneous carotid-cavernous sinus fistulas. J Neurosurg 62:248–256

Bartholow R (1872) Aneurysms of the arteries of the base of the brain-their symptomatology diagnosis and treatment. Ann J Med Sci 64:375–386

Bavinzski G, Killer M, Knosp E, Ferraz-Leite H, Gruber A, Richling B (1997) False aneurysms of the intracavernous carotid artery–report of 7 cases. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 139:37–43 Berenstein A, Scott J, Choi IS, Persky M (1986) Percutaneous embolization of arteriovenous fistulas of the external ca-

rotid artery. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 7:937–942

Berger MS, Hosobuchi Y (1984) Cavernous sinus fistula caused by intracavernous rupture of a persistent primitive trigeminal artery. Case report. J Neurosurg 61:391–395

Bianchi-Marsoli S, Righi C, Ciasca P (1996) Low dose heparin therapy for dural cavernous sinus fistulas. Neuroradiology Suppl:15

Biglan AW, Pang D, Shuckett EP, Kerber C (1981) External carotid-cavernous fistula in an infant. Am J Ophthalmol 91:351–356

Brismar G, Brismar J (1976) Spontaneous carotid-cavern- ous fistulas: phlebographic appearance and relation to thrombosis. Acta Radiol Diagn (Stockh) 17:180–192

Brown RD Jr, Wiebers DO, Torner JC, O‘Fallon WM (1996) Incidence and prevalence of intracranial vascular malformations in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1965 to 1992. Neurology 46:949–952

Brown RD Jr, Flemming KD, Meyer FB, Cloft HJ, Pollock BE, Link ML (2005) Natural history, evaluation, and management of intracranial vascular malformations. Mayo Clin Proc 80:269–281

Castaigne P, Blancard P, Laplane D, Djindjan R, Sorato M (1966a) Spontaneous arteriovenous communication between the external carotid and the cavernous sinus. Bull Soc Ophtalmol Fr 66:47–49

Castaigne P, Laplane D, Djindjian R, Bories J, Augustin P (1966b) Spontaneous arteriovenous communication between the external carotid and the cavernous sinus. Rev Neurol (Paris) 114:5–14

Chaudhary MY, Sachdev VP, Cho SH, Weitzner I Jr, Puljic S, Huang YP (1982) Dural arteriovenous malformation of the major venous sinuses: an acquired lesion. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 3:13–19

Chen MN, Nakazawa S, Hori M (1993) A case of primary intracranial choriocarcinoma with a carotid-cavernous fistula. No Shinkei Geka 21:1031–1034

Cheng K (2006) Neuro-endovascular therapy of carotid cavernous fistula. Hong Kong Med Diary 11

Cheng KM, Chan CM, Cheung YL (2003) Transvenous embolisation of dural carotid-cavernous fistulas by multiple venous routes: a series of 27 cases. Acta Neurochir 145:17–29

Chuman H, Trobe JD, Petty EM, Schwarze U, Pepin M, Byers PH, Deveikis JP (2002) Spontaneous direct carotid-cav- ernous fistula in Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type IV: two case reports and a review of the literature. J Neuroophthalmol 22:75–81

Chung SJ, Kim JS, Kim JC, Lee SK, Kwon SU, Lee MC, Suh DC (2002) Intracranial dural arteriovenous fistulas: analysis of 60 patients. Cerebrovasc Dis 13:79–88

Cognard C, Gobin YP, Pierot L, Bailly AL, Houdart E, Casa-

sco A, Chiras J, Merland JJ (1995) Cerebral dural arteriovenous fistulas: clinical and angiographic correlation with a revised classification of venous drainage. Radiology 194:671–680

Dandy W (1937) Carotid-cavernous aneurysms (pulsating exophthalmos). Zentralbl Neurochir 2:77–206

Dany F, Fraysse A, Priollet P, Brutus P, Bokor J, Catanzano G, Bernard P, Christides C, Beylot C (1986) Dysmorphic syndrome and vascular dysplasia: an atypical form of type IV Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. J Mal Vasc 11:263–269

de Campos JM, Ferro MO, Burzaco JA, Boixados JR (1982) Spontaneous carotid-cavernous fistula in osteogenesis imperfecta. J Neurosurg 56:590–593

Debrun GM, Davis KR, Nauta HJ, Heros RE, Ahn HS (1988a) Treatment of carotid cavernous fistulae or cavernous aneurysms associated with a persistent trigeminal artery: report of three cases. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 9:749–755 Debrun GM, Vinuela F, Fox AJ, Davis KR, Ahn HS (1988b) Indications for treatment and classification of 132 carotid-

cavernous fistulas. Neurosurgery 22:285–289

Debrun GM, Aletich VA, Miller NR, DeKeiser RJ (1996) Three cases of spontaneous direct carotid cavernous fistulas associated with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type IV. Surg Neurol 46:247–252

Delens E (1870) De la communication de la carotide interne et du sinus caverneux (anevrysme arterio-veineux). Paris Desal HA, Toulgoat F, Raoul S, Guillon B, Bommard S,

Naudou-Giron E, Auffray-Calvier E, de Kersaint-Gilly A (2005) Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type IV and recurrent carotid-cavernous fistula: review of the literature, endovascular approach, technique and difficulties. Neuroradiology 47:300–304

Echols DH, Jackson JD (1959) Carotid-cavernous fistula: a perplexing surgical problem. J Neurosurg 16:619–627 Fields CE, Cassano AD, Dattilo JB, Yelon JA, Ivatury RR,

Broderick TJ (2000) Indirect carotid-cavernous sinus fistula after shotgun injury. J Trauma 48:338–341

Flandroy P, Lacour P, Marsault C, Stevenaert A, Collignon J (1987) The intravascular treatment of a cavernous fistula caused by rupture of a traumatic carotid trigeminal aneurysm. Neuroradiology 29:308–311

Folkman J (1995) Seminars in medicine of the Beth Israel Hospital, Boston. Clinical applications of research on angiogenesis. N Engl J Med 333:1757–1763

Fromm H, Habel J, Halama H (1967) On the diagnostic significance of the Bernasconi and Cassinari artery in the cerebral angiogram. Nervenarzt 38:220–222

Gerlach R, Yahya H, Rohde S, Bohm M, Berkefeld J, Scharrer I, Seifert V, Raabe A (2003) Increased incidence of thrombophilic abnormalities in patients with cranial dural arteriovenous fistulae. Neurol Res 25:745–748

Guglielmi G, Vinuela F, Dion J, Duckwiler G, Cantore G, Delfini R (1990) Persistent primitive trigeminal arterycavernous sinus fistulas: report of two cases. Neurosurgery 27:805–808; discussion 808–809

Gupta R, Horowitz M, Tayal A, Jovin T (2005) De novo development of a remote arteriovenous fistula following transarterial embolization of a carotid cavernous fistula: case report and review of the literature. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 26:2587–2590

Halbach VV, Higashida RT, Hieshima GB, Reicher M, Norman D, Newton TH (1987) Dural fistulas involving the

cavernous sinus: results of treatment in 30 patients. Radiology 163:437–442

Halbach VV, Higashida RT, Dowd CF, Barnwell SL, Hieshima GB (1990) Treatment of carotid-cavernous fistulas associated with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. Neurosurgery 26:1021–1027 Hamby WB (1966) Carotid-cavernous fistula, vol III. Spring-

field: Charles C Thomas

Hamby W, Gardner W (1933) Treatment of puslating exophthalmos with report of two cases. Arch Surg 27:676

Hayes GJ (1958) Carotid cavernous fistulas: diagnosis and surgical management. Am Surg 24:839–843

Higashida RT, Halbach VV, Tsai FY, Norman D, Pribram HF, Mehringer CM, Hieshima GB (1989) Interventional neurovascular treatment of traumatic carotid and vertebral artery lesions: results in 234 cases. AJR Am J Roentgenol 153:577–582

Horton JA, Jungreis CA, Stratemeier PH (1991) Sharp vascular calcifications and acute balloon rupture during embolization. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 12:1070–1073

Houser OW, Campbell JK, Campbell RJ, Sundt TM Jr (1979) Arteriovenous malformation affecting the transverse dural venous sinus–an acquired lesion. Mayo Clin Proc 54:651–661

Hulke (1860) All the capital signs of orbital aneurism present, in a marked degree, but independently of aneurism or any erectile tumor. Ophthalmic Hosp Rep 2:6

Inagawa T (1991) Follow-up study of unruptured aneurysms arising from the C3 and C4 segments of the internal carotid artery. Surg Neurol 36:99–105

Jacobson BE, Nesbit GM, Ahuja A, Barnwell SL (1996) Traumatic indirect carotid-cavernous fistula: report of two cases. Neurosurgery 39:1235–1237; discussion 1237–1238 Kanner AA, Maimon S, Rappaport ZH (2000) Treatment of spontaneous carotid-cavernous fistula in Ehlers-Danlos syndrome by transvenous occlusion with Guglielmi detachable coils. Case report and review of the literature.

J Neurosurg 93:689–692

Kawaguchi T, Kawano T, Kaneko Y, Tsutsumi M, Ooigawa H, Kazekawa K (1999) Dural arteriovenous fistula of the transverse sigmoid sinus after transvenous embolization of the carotid cavernous fistula. No To Shinkei 51:1065–1069

Kerber CW, Manke W (1983) Trigeminal artery to cavernous sinus fistula treated by balloon occlusion. Case report. J Neurosurg 58:611–613

Kerber CW, Newton TH (1973) The macro and microvasculature of the dura mater. Neuroradiology 6:175–179

Kim DJ, et al. (2006). Results of transvenous embolization of cavernous dural arteriovenous fistula: a single-center experience with emphasis on complications and management. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 27(10):2078–2082

Klisch J, Huppertz HJ, Spetzger U, Hetzel A, Seeger W, Schumacher M (2003) Transvenous treatment of carotid cavernous and dural arteriovenous fistulae: results for 31 patients and review of the literature. Neurosurgery 53:836–856

Knudtzon A (1950) A remarkable case of pulsating exophthalmos in an old patient who recovered spontaneoulsly after bilateral aseptic thrombosis of the cavernous sinus. Acta Ophthalmol 28:363–369

Kobayashi N, Miyachi S, Negoro M, Suzuki O, Hattori K, Kojima T, Yoshida J (2003) Endovascular treatment strategy for direct carotid-cavernous fistulas resulting from rupture of intracavernous carotid aneurysms. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 24:1789–1796

Koh JH, Kim JS, Hong SC, Choe YH, Do YS, Byun HS, Lee WR, Kim DK (1999) Skin manifestations, multiple aneurysms, and carotid-cavernous fistula in Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type IV. Circulation 100:e57–58

Konishi Y, Hieshima GB, Hara M, Yoshino K, Yano K, Takeuchi K (1990) Congenital fistula of the dural carotid-cav- ernous sinus: case report and review of the literature. Neurosurgery 27:120–126

Kraus JA, Stuper BK, Berlit P (1998) Association of resistance to activated protein C and dural arteriovenous fistulas. J Neurol 245:731–733

Kraus JA, Stuper BK, Nahser HC, Klockgether T, Berlit P (2000) Significantly increased prevalence of factor V Leiden in patients with dural arteriovenous fistulas. J Neurol 247:521–523

Kubota Y, Ueda T, Kaku Y, Sakai N (1999) Development of a dural arteriovenous fistula around the jugular valve after transvenous embolization of cavernous dural arteriovenous fistula. Surg Neurol 51:174–176

Kupersmith MJ, Berenstein A, Choi IS, Warren F, Flamm E (1988) Management of nontraumatic vascular shunts involving the cavernous sinus. Ophthalmology 95:121–130 Kupersmith MJ, Hurst R, Berenstein A, Choi IS, Jafar J, Ransohoff J (1992) The benign course of cavernous ca-

rotid artery aneurysms. J Neurosurg 77:690–693 Kusaka N, Sugiu K, Katsumata A, Nakashima H, Tamiya T,

Ohmoto T (2001) The importance of venous hypertension in the formation of dural arteriovenous fistulas: a case report of multiple fistulas remote from sinus thrombosis. Neuroradiology 43:980–984

Lasjaunias P, Berenstein A (1987) Dural arteriovenous malformation, vol 1. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York Lasjaunias P, Chiu M, ter Brugge K, Tolia A, Hurth M, Ber-

nstein M (1986) Neurological manifestations of intracranial dural arteriovenous malformations. J Neurosurg 64:724–730

Lawton MT, Jacobowitz R, Spetzler RF (1997) Redefined role of angiogenesis in the pathogenesis of dural arteriovenous malformations. J Neurosurg 87:267–274

Lesoin F, Rousseau M, Petit H, Jomin M (1984) Spontaneous development of an intracavernous arterial aneurysm into a carotid-cavernous fistula. Case report. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 70:53–58

Lie T (1968) Congenital anomalies of the carotid arteries. Excerpta Med 35–51

Ling F, Wu J, Zhang H (2001). Classification of intracranial dural arteriovenous fistula and its clinical signification. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi 81(23):1439–442.

Linskey ME, Sekhar LN, Hirsch WL Jr, Yonas H, Horton JA (1990) Aneurysms of the intracavernous carotid artery: natural history and indications for treatment. Neurosurgery 26:933–937; discussion 937–938

Linskey ME, Sekhar LN, Horton JA, Hirsch WL Jr, Yonas H (1991) Aneurysms of the intracavernous carotid artery: a multidisciplinary approach to treatment. J Neurosurg 75:525–534

Liu HM, Wang YH, Chen YF, Cheng JS, Yip PK, Tu YK (2001) Long-term clinical outcome of spontaneous carotid cavernous sinus fistulae supplied by dural branches of the internal carotid artery. Neuroradiology 43:1007–1014

Locke C (1924) Intracranial arteriovenous aneurysm or pulsating exophthalmos. Ann Surg 80:1–24

Makiuchi T, Takasaki W, Oda H et al. (1998) A case of sig-

moid sinus dural arteriovenous fistual after treated cavernous dural arteriovenous fistula. Intervent Neuroradiol 4:219–222

Malek AM, Halbach VV, Higashida RT, Phatouros CC, Meyers PM, Dowd CF (2000) Treatment of dural arteriovenous malformations and fistulas. Neurosurg Clin N Am 11:147–166, ix

Meyers PM, Halbach VV, Dowd CF, Lempert TE, Malek AM, Phatouros CC, Lefler JE, Higashida RT (2002) Dural carotid cavernous fistula: definitive endovascular management and long-term follow-up. Am J Ophthalmol 134:85–92

Miki T, Nagai K, Saitoh Y, Onodera Y, Ohta H, Ikoma H (1988) Matas procedure in the treatment of spontaneous carotid cavernous sinus fistula: a complication of retinal hemorrhage. No Shinkei Geka 16:971–976

Mironov A (1994) Pathogenetical consideration of spontaneous dural arteriovenous fistulas (DAVFs). Acta Neurochir (Wien) 131:45–58

Mironov A (1995) Classification of spontaneous dural arteriovenous fistulas with regard to their pathogenesis see comments. Acta Radiol 36:582–592

Mitsuhashi T, Miyajima M, Saitoh R, Nakao Y, Hishii M, Arai H (2004) Spontaneous carotid-cavernous fistula in a patient with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type IV–case report. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 44:548–553

Moniz E (1927) La radiographie cerebrale. Bull Acad Med. Paris 98:40–45

Nakagawa H, Kubo S, Nakajima Y, Izumoto S, Fujita T (1992) Shifting of dural arteriovenous malformation from the cavernous sinus to the sigmoid sinus to the transverse sinus after transvenous embolization. A case of left spontaneous carotid-cavernous sinus fistula. Surg Neurol 37:30–38

Nelaton H (1876) Carotid cavernous fistula. Lancet 2:142 Newton TH, Cronqvist S (1969) Involvement of dural arteries

in intracranial arteriovenous malformations. Radiology 93:1071–1078

Newton TH, Hoyt WF (1968) Spontaneous arteriovenous fistula between dural branches of the internal maxillary artery and the posterior cavernous sinus. Radiology 91:1147–1150

Newton TH, Hoyt WF (1970) Dural arteriovenous shunts in the region of the cavernous sinus. Neuroradiology 1:71–81 Nishijima M, Takaku A, Endo S, Kuwayama N, Koizumi F,

Sato H, Owada K (1992) Etiological evaluation of dural arteriovenous malformations of the lateral and sigmoid sinuses based on histopathological examinations. J Neurosurg 76:600–606

Noland L, Taylor AS (1931) Pulsating exophthalmos the result of injury. Trans South surg Ass 43:171–177

Obrador S, Gomez-Bueno J, Silvela J (1974) Spontaneous ca- rotid-cavernous fistula produced by ruptured aneurysm of the meningohypophyseal branch of the internal carotid artery. Case report. J Neurosurg 40:539–543

Okamura T, Yamamoto M, Ohta K, Matsuoka T, Takahashi M, Uozumi T (1995) A case of ruptured cerebral aneurysm associated with fenestrated vertebral artery in osteogenesis imperfecta. No Shinkei Geka 23:451–455

Olivecrona H, Riives J (1948) Arteriovenous aneurysms of the brain: their diagnosis and treatment. Arch Neurol Psychiatr 59:567–602

Ornaque I, Alonso P, Marti Valeri C, de Miquel MA, Cambra

R, Gabarros A, Conesa G (2003) Spontaneous closure of a intracraneal dural arteriovenous fistula by controlled hypotension during a general anesthesia procedure. A case report. Neurologia 18:746–749

Palestine AG, Younge BR, Piepgras DG (1981) Visual prognosis in carotid-cavernous fistula. Arch Ophthalmol 99:1600–1603

Parkinson D (1967) Transcavernous repair of carotid cavernous fistula. Case report. J Neurosurg 26:420–424

Parkinson D (1973) Carotid cavernous fstula: direct repair with preservation of the carotid artery.Technical note. J Neurosurg 38:99–106

Phatouros CC, Meyers PM, Dowd CF, Halbach VV, Malek AM, Higashida RT (2000) Carotid artery cavernous fistulas. Neurosurg Clin N Am 11:67–84

Phelps CD, Thompson HS, Ossoinig KC (1982) The diagnosis and prognosis of atypical carotid-cavernous fistula (redeyed shunt syndrome). Am J Ophthalmol 93:423–436

Pierot L, Chiras J, Duyckaerts C, Jason M, Martin N (1993) Intracranial dural arteriovenous fistulas and sinus thrombosis. Report of five cases. J Neuroradiol 20:9–18

Polin RS, Shaffrey ME, Jensen ME, Braden L, Ferguson RD, Dion JE, Kassell NF (1996) Medical management in the endovascular treatment of carotid-cavernous aneurysms. J Neurosurg 84:755–761

Potter JM (1954) Carotid-cavernous fistula; five cases with spontaneous recovery. Br Med J 4891:786–788

Prolo, DJ, Hanbery JW (1971) Intraluminal occlusion of a carotid-cavernous sinus fistula with a balloon catheter. Technical note. J Neurosurg. 35(2):237–242

Purdy PD (2002) Managing carotid-cavernous fistulas in Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type IV. J Neuroophthalmol 22:73–74

Rivington (1875) Med Chir Trans lviii:191

Rosenthal AK, Rowe JM (1987) Lymphomatoid granulomatosis associated with a carotid sinus fistula: response to cytotoxic therapy. Am J Med 83:381–382

Rosso D, Hammond RR, Pelz DM (1999) Cavernous aneurysm rupture with balloon occlusion of a direct carotid cavernous fistula: postmortem examination. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 20:771–773

Saff G, Frau M, Murtagh FR, Silbiger ML (1989) Mucormycosis associated with carotid cavernous fistula and cavernous carotid mycotic aneurysm. J Fla Med Assoc 76:863–865

Sarma D, ter Brugge K (2003) Management of intracranial dural arteriovenous shunts in adults. Eur J Radiol 46:206–220

Satomi J, van Dijk JM, Terbrugge KG, Willinsky RA, Wallace MC (2002) Benign cranial dural arteriovenous fistulas: outcome of conservative management based on the natural history of the lesion. J Neurosurg 97:767–770

Satomi J, Satoh K (2008). Epidemiology and etiology of dural arteriovenous fistula. Brain Nerve 60(8):883–6.

Satomi J, Satoh K, Matsubara S, Nakajima N, Nagahiro S (2005) Angiographic changes in venous drainage of cavernous sinus dural arteriovenous fistulae after palliative transarterial embolization or observational management: a proposed stage classification. Neurosurgery 56:494–502; discussion 494–502

Sattler H (1880) Pulsirender exophthalmus. In: Graefe A, Saemisch T (eds) Handbuch der Gesamten Augenheilkunde. Leipzig, Engelmann, pp 745–948

Sattler H (1920) Pulsierender exophthalmus. In: Graefe A, Sae-

misch T (eds) Handbuch der Gesamten Augenheilkunde. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 1–245

Sattler H (1930) Pulsierender exophthalmus. In: Graefe A, Saemisch T (eds): Handbuch der Gesamten Augenheilkunde. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 1–245

Seeger JF, Gabrielsen TO, Giannotta SL, Lotz PR (1980) Ca- rotid-cavernous sinus fistulas and venous thrombosis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1:141–148

Sergott RC, Grossman RI, Savino PJ, Bosley TM, Schatz NJ (1987) The syndrome of paradoxical worsening of duralcavernous sinus arteriovenous malformations. Ophthalmology 94:205–212

Shimizu Y, Nagamine Y, Fujiwara S, Suzuki J, Yamamoto T, Iwasaki Y (1987) An experimental study of vascular damage in estrogen-induced embolization. Surg Neurol 28:23–30

Shin Y, Uranishi R, Nakase H, Sakaki T (2003) Vascular endothelial growth factor expression in the rat dural arteriovenous fistula model. No To Shinkei 55:946–952

Singh V, Meyers PM, Halbach VH, Gress DR, Higashida RT, Dowd CF, Smith WS (2001) Dural arteriovenous fistula associated with prothrombin gene mutation. J Neuroimaging 11:319–321

Skolnick KA, McDonnell JF (2000) Spontaneous dural cavernous sinus fistula in a child. J Aapos 4:383–385

Stiebel-Kalish H, Setton A, Nimii Y, Kalish Y, Hartman J, Huna Bar-On R, Berenstein A, Kupersmith MJ (2002) Cavernous sinus dural arteriovenous malformations: patterns of venous drainage are related to clinical signs and symptoms. Ophthalmology 109:1685–1691

Sugar HS, Meyer SJ (1940) Pulsating exophthalmos. Arch Ophtalmol Rev Gen Ophthalmol 64:1288–3121

Suh DC, Lee JH, Kim SJ, Chung SJ, Choi CG, Kim HJ, Kim CJ, Kook M, Ahn HS, Kwon SU, Kim JS (2005) New concept in cavernous sinus dural arteriovenous fistula: correlation with presenting symptom and venous drainage patterns. Stroke 36:1134–1139

Suzuki J, Komatsu S (1981) New embolization method using estrogen for dural arteriovenous malformation and meningioma. Surg Neurol 16:438–442

Suzuki Y, Kase M, Yokoi M, Arikado T, Miyasaka K (1989) Development of central retinal vein occlusion in dural carotid-cavernous fistula. Ophthalmologica 199:28–33

Takahashi M, Nakano Y (1980) Magnification angiography of dural carotid-cavernous sinus fistulae with emphasis on clinical and angiographic evolution. Neuroradiology 19:249–256

Taki W, Nakahara I, Nishi S, Yamashita K, Sadatou A, Matsumoto K, Tanaka M, Kikuchi H (1994) Pathogenetic and therapeutic considerations of carotid-cavernous sinus fistulas. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 127:6–14

Taniguchi RM, Goree JA, Odom GL (1971) Spontaneous ca- rotid-cavernous shunts presenting diagnostic problems. J Neurosurg 35:384–391

Taptas JN (1950) Etiology and pathogenesis of exophthalmias of vascular origin, called pulsatile exophthalmias. Arch Ophtalmol Rev Gen Ophtalmol 10:22–50

Taptas JN (1982) Cavernous carotid artery. J Neurosurg 56:312–313

Terada T, Higashida RT, Halbach VV, Dowd CF, Tsuura M, Komai N, Wilson CB, Hieshima GB (1994) Development of acquired arteriovenous fistulas in rats due to venous hypertension. J Neurosurg 80:884–889

Terada T, Tsuura M, Komai N, Higashida RT, Halbach VV, Dowd CF, Wilson CB, Hieshima GB (1996) The role of angiogenic factor bFGF in the development of dural AVFs. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 138:877–883

Terada T, Higashida RT, Halbach VV, Dowd CF, Hieshima GB (1998) The effect of oestrogen on the development of arteriovenous fistulae induced by venous hypertension in rats. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 140:82–86

Theaudin M, et al. (2006) Diagnosis and treatment of dural carotid-cavernous fistulae: a consecutive series of 27 patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry

Tokunaga K, Sugiu K, Kameda M, Sakai K, Terasaka K, Higashi T, Date I (2004) Persistent primitive trigeminal artery-cavernous sinus fistula with intracerebral hemorrhage: endovascular treatment using detachable coils in a transarterial double-catheter technique. Case report and review of the literature. J Neurosurg 101:697–699

Tomsick TA (1997) Typ A (direct) CCF: etiology, prevalence and natural history. In: Tomsick TA (ed) Carotid cavernous fistula. Digital Educational Publishing, Philadelphia, pp 59–73

Tomsick TA (1997) Typ B,C, and D CCF: etiology, prevalence and natural history. In: Tomsick TA (ed) Carotid cavernous fistula. Digital Educational Publishing, Philadelphia, pp 59–73

Toya S, Shiobara R, Izumi J, Shinomiya Y, Shiga H, Kimura C (1981) Spontaneous carotid-cavernous fistula during pregnancy or in the postpartum stage. Report of two cases. J Neurosurg 54:252–256

Travers B (1811) A case of aneurysm by anastomosis in the orbit, cured by the ligature of the common carotid artery. Med Chir Tr 2:1–16

Tsai LK, et al. (2004) Intracranial dural arteriovenous fistulas with or without cerebral sinus thrombosis: analysis of 69 patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75:1639–1641

Uranishi R, Nakase H, Sakaki T (1999) Expression of an-

giogenic growth factors in dural arteriovenous fistula. J Neurosurg 91:781–786

van Rooij WJ, Sluzewski M, Beute GN (2006) Ruptured cavernous sinus aneurysms causing carotid cavernous fistula: incidence, clinical presentation, treatment, and outcome. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 27:185–189

Vinuela F, Fox AJ, Debrun GM, Peerless SJ, Drake CG (1984) Spontaneous carotid-cavernous fistulas: clinical, radiological, and therapeutic considerations. Experience with 20 cases. J Neurosurg 60:976–984

Voigt K, Sauer M, Dichgans J (1971) Spontaneous occlusion of a bilateral caroticocavernous fistula studied by serial angiography. Neuroradiology 2:207–211

von Rad M, Tornow K (1975) Spontaneous carotid cavernous fistula in a case of hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (Osler-Rendu) (author‘s transl). J Neurol 209:237–242

Walker AE, Allegre GF (1956) Carotid-cavernous fistulas. Surgery 39:411–422

Watanabe A, Takahara Y, Ibuchi Y, Mizukami K (1984) Two cases of dural arteriovenous malformation occurring after intracranial surgery. Neuroradiology 26:375–380

Wenderoth JD, Phatouros CC (2003) Incidental discovery of a dural arteriovenous fistula in a patient with activated protein C resistance. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 24:1369–1371

Wolff H, Schmid B (1939) Das Arteriogramm des pulsierenden Exophthalmus. Zbl Neurochir 4:241–250, 310–319 Yamamoto T, Asai K, Lin YW, Suzuki K, Ohta S, Ohta K,

Yamamoto M, Ichioka H (1995) Spontaneous resolution of symptoms in an infant with a congenital dural caroticocavernous fistula. Neuroradiology 37:247–249

Yamashita K, Taki W, Nakahara I, Nishi S, Sadato A, Kikuchi H (1993) Development of sigmoid dural arteriovenous fistulas after transvenous embolization of cavernous dural arteriovenous fistulas. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 14:1106–1108

Zimmerman R, Leeds NE, Naidich TP (1977) Carotid-cav- ernous fistula associated with intracranial fibromuscular dysplasia. Radiology 122:725–726