- •Foreword
- •Preface
- •Glossary
- •1. Introduction
- •2. Historical Considerations
- •2.1 Arteriovenous Fistula and Pulsating Exophthalmos
- •2.2 Angiography
- •2.3 Therapeutic Measures
- •2.4 Embolization
- •References
- •3.1 Osseous Anatomy
- •3.1.1 Orbit
- •3.2 Anatomy of the Dura Mater and the Cranial Nerves
- •3.2.1 Autonomic Nervous System
- •3.3 Vascular Anatomy
- •3.3.1 Arterial Anatomy
- •3.3.1.1 Internal Carotid Artery
- •Meningohypophyseal Trunk (MHT)
- •Ophthalmic Artery
- •Ethmoidal Arteries
- •3.3.1.2 External Carotid Artery
- •3.3.1.2.1 Ascending Pharyngeal Artery
- •3.3.1.2.2 Internal Maxillary Artery
- •3.3.1.2.3 Middle Meningeal Artery
- •3.3.1.2.4 Accessory Meningeal Artery
- •3.3.2 Venous Anatomy
- •3.3.2.1.1 Embryology
- •3.3.2.1.2 Anatomy and Topography
- •Orbital Veins
- •Superior Ophthalmic Vein
- •Inferior Ophthalmic Vein
- •Central Retinal Vein (No Direct CS Tributary)
- •Uncal Vein, Uncinate Vein
- •Sphenoparietal sinus (Breschet), Sinus alae parvae, Sinus sphenoidales superior (Sir C. Bell)
- •Intercavernous Sinus, Sinus intercavernosus, Sinus circularis (Ridley), Sinus ellipticus, Sinus coronarius, Sinus clinoideus (Sir C. Bell), Sinus transversus sellae equinae (Haller)
- •Meningeal Veins
- •Veins of the Foramen Rotundum, Emissary Vein
- •Inferior Petrosal Sinus, Sinus petrosus profundus, Sinus petro-occipitalis superior (Trolard)
- •Venous Plexus of the Hypoglossal Canal, Anterior Condylar Vein
- •Posterior Condylar Vein
- •Lateral Condylar Vein
- •Inferior Petroclival Vein
- •Petro-occipital Sinus, Sinus petro-occipitalis inferior, petro-occipital vein (Padget)
- •Transverse Occipital Sinus (Doyen)
- •Basilar Plexus (Virchow)
- •Marginal Sinus
- •Foramen Ovale Plexus (Trigeminal Sinus), Sphenoid Emissary, “Rete” of the Foramen Ovale
- •Vein of the Sphenoid Foramen (Foramen Venosum, Foramen of Vesalius)
- •Foramen Lacerum Plexus
- •Pterygoid Plexus
- •3.3.2.4 Other Veins of Importance for the CS Drainage or for Transvenous Access to the CS
- •Facial Vein
- •Frontal Vein
- •Angular Vein
- •Middle Temporal Vein
- •Internal Jugular Vein
- •The External Jugular Vein
- •Vertebral Vein, Vertebral Artery Venous Plexus
- •Deep Cervical Vein
- •References
- •Introduction
- •4.1.1 Dural Arteriovenous Fistulas (DAVFs)
- •4.1.2 Cavernous Sinus Fistulas (CSFs)
- •References
- •Introduction
- •5.1 Etiology and Pathogenesis of Type A Fistulas
- •5.2 Etiology and Pathogenesis of Type B–D Fistulas
- •5.2.1 Pregnancy
- •5.2.2 Hormonal Factors
- •5.2.3 Thrombosis
- •5.2.4 Venous Hypertension
- •5.2.5 Trauma
- •5.2.6 Embolization
- •5.2.7 Congenital
- •5.2.8 Other Potential Factors
- •5.2.9 Various
- •5.3 Prevalence
- •5.3.1 Natural History
- •References
- •Introduction
- •6.1 Extraorbital Ocular Symptoms
- •6.1.1 Orbital Pain
- •6.2 Orbital Symptoms
- •6.2.1 Exophthalmos
- •6.2.2 Conjunctival Engorgement and Chemosis
- •6.2.2.1 Retinal Hemorrhage
- •6.2.3 Corneal Damage
- •6.2.4 Orbital Bruit
- •6.2.6 Secondary Glaucoma and Visual Loss
- •6.3 Other and Neurological Symptoms
- •References
- •7. Radiological Diagnosis of DCSFs
- •7.1 Non-invasive Imaging Techniques
- •7.1.2 Doppler and Carotid Duplex Sonography
- •7.2 Intra-arterial Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)
- •7.2.1 Introduction
- •7.2.2 Technique
- •7.2.3 Angiographic Protocol for DCSFs
- •7.2.4 Angiographic Anatomy of the Cavernous Sinus
- •7.2.5 Flat Detector Technology in Neuroangiography
- •7.2.6 Rotational Angiography and 3D-DSA
- •7.2.6.1 Dual Volume Technique (DVT)
- •7.2.6.2 Angiographic Computed Tomography (ACT), DynaCT (Siemens), C-arm Flat Detector CT (FD-CT), Flat Panel CT (FP-CT) or Cone Beam CT
- •7.2.6.3 Image Post-Processing
- •7.2.6.4 3D Studies of the Cavernous Sinus Region
- •References
- •8. Endovascular Treatment
- •8.1 Techniques of Transvenous Catheterization
- •8.1.1 Inferior Petrosal Sinus Approach
- •8.1.2 Alternative Approaches to the Cavernous Sinus
- •8.1.3 Other Techniques
- •8.2 Embolic Agents
- •8.2.1 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) and Embospheres
- •8.2.2 Stainless Steel Coils
- •8.2.5 Stents
- •8.3.1 Approaches (Benndorf et al. 2004)
- •8.3.2 Angiographic and Clinical Outcome
- •8.4 Discussion of Transvenous Occlusions
- •8.4.1 Approaches
- •8.4.1.1 IPS Approaches
- •8.4.1.6 Transfemoral Pterygoid Plexus Approach (PP Approach)
- •8.4.1.7 Transfemoral Cortical Vein Approach
- •8.4.1.10 Direct Puncture of the Foramen Ovale
- •8.4.2 Embolic Materials
- •8.4.2.1 Particles
- •8.4.2.2 Coils
- •HydroCoils (Hydrogel)
- •8.4.2.4 Ethylene-Vinyl Alcohol Copolymer (OnyxTM)
- •8.4.2.5 Stents and Covered Stents
- •8.4.3 Anatomic Results, Clinical Outcome and Complications of Transvenous Occlusions and Transarterial Embolizations
- •8.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •9. Alternative Treatment Options
- •9.1 Spontaneous Thrombosis
- •9.2 Manual Compression Therapy
- •9.4 Radiotherapy
- •9.5 Surgery
- •References
- •10. Hemodynamic Aspects of DCSFs
- •10.1 Introduction
- •10.2 Basic Hemodynamic Principles
- •10.3 Invasive Assessment of Hemodynamics
- •10.4 Flow Velocity and Pressure Measurements in Brain AVMs and DAVFs
- •10.5 Hemodynamics and Pathophysiology in CSFs
- •Comments
- •References
- •11. Summary
- •Subject Index
Glossary
ACC |
Anterior condylar confluens |
ACT |
Angiographic computed tomography (contrast enhanced DynaCT; |
|
based on C-arm mounted Flat panel technology) |
ACV |
Anterior condylar vein |
AFR |
Artery of the foramen rotundum |
AMA |
Accessory meningeal artery |
APA |
Ascending pharyngeal artery |
AVM |
Arteriovenous malformation |
BP |
Basilar plexus |
BSC |
Boston Scientific Corporation |
CCF(s) |
Carotid cavernous fistula (direct fistula) |
CN(s) |
Cranial nerve(s) |
CS(s) |
Cavernous sinus(es) |
CSF(s) |
Cavernous sinus fistula(s) (AV shunt involving the cavernous sinus in general) |
CTA |
Computed tomographic angiography (based on conventional CT technology) |
CVD |
Cortical venous drainage |
DAVF(s) |
Dural arteriovenous fistula |
DAVS |
Dural arteriovenous shunt |
DCCF |
Dural carotid cavernous fistula |
DCSF(s) |
Dural cavernous sinus fistula(s) (indirect fistula) |
DSA |
Digital subtraction angiography |
DynaCT |
Siemens term for cross sectional (CT-like) imaging using rotating C-arms |
ECA |
External carotid artery |
FFrench (Charrière; 1 french = 1/3 mm)
FLP |
Foramen lacerum plexus |
FrV |
Frontal vein |
FV |
Facial vein |
i.a. |
Intraarterial |
i.v. |
Intravenous |
ICA |
Internal carotid artery |
ICAVP |
Internal carotid artery venous plexus |
ICS |
Intercavernous sinus |
IJV |
Internal jugular vein |
ILT |
Inferolateral trunk |
IMA |
Internal maxillary artery |
IOF |
Inferior orbital fissure (infraorbital) |
IOV |
Inferior ophthalmic vein |
IPCV |
Inferior petroclival vein |
IPS |
Inferior petrosal sinus |
IPV |
Intrapetrosal vein |
|
|
XIV Glossary
JB |
Jugular bulb |
LCS |
Laterocavernous sinus |
LCV |
Lateral condylar vein |
LVD |
Leptomeningeal venous drainage |
MHT |
Meningohypophyseal trunk |
MIP |
Maximum Intensity projections |
MMA |
Middle meningeal artery |
MPR |
Multiplanar reconstructions |
MRA |
Magnetic resonance angiography |
MTA |
Marginal tentorial artery (medial tentorial artery) |
MTV |
Middle Temporal vein |
NBCA |
N-butyl-cyanoacrylate |
OA |
Ophthalmic artery |
PCP |
Posterior clinoid process |
PCV |
Posterior condylar vein |
PP |
Pterygoid plexus |
PPF |
Pterygopalatine fossa |
PVP |
Prevertebral plexus |
RAFL |
Recurrent artery of the foramen lacerum |
SMCV |
Superficial middle cerebral vein |
SOF |
Superior orbital fissure (supraorbital) |
SOV |
Superior ophthalmic vein |
SPPS |
Sphenoparietal sinus |
SPS |
Superior petrosal sinus |
SS |
Sigmoid sinus |
SSD |
Surface shaded Display |
STA |
Superficial temporal artery |
TAE |
Transarterial embolization |
TVO |
Transvenous occlusion |
UV |
Uncal vein |
VA |
Vertebral artery |
ViA |
Vidian artery |
VRT |
Volume rendering technique |
