Visual Perception
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Visual Perception
A C L I N I C A L O R I E N T A T I O N
FOURTH EDITION
Steven H. Schwartz, OD, PhD
State College of Optometry
State University of New York
New York, New York
New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto
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ISBN: 978-0-07-160462-8
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Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
1. Experimental Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
. 1 |
2. Introductory Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
. 3 |
Very Basic Ocular Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
. .3 |
Basic Retinal Anatomy and Postretinal Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
. .6 |
Electromagnetic Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
.20 |
Transmission Characteristics of the Eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
23 |
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
24 |
3. The Duplex Retina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
25 |
Basic Distinctions Between Scotopic and Photopic Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
26 |
Morphological Distinctions Between Rods and Cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
26 |
Photopigments in Rods and Cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
30 |
Retinal Distribution of Photoreceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
36 |
Dark Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
37 |
Light Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
44 |
Spatial Resolution and Spatial Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
47 |
Temporal Resolution and Temporal Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
51 |
Stiles–Crawford Effect of the First Kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
54 |
Additional Clinical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
57 |
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
63 |
Self-Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
64 |
4. Photometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
65 |
Photometry and Radiometry: Basic Concepts and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
65 |
Cosine Diffusers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
72 |
Inverse Square Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
73 |
v
vi |
Contents |
|
|
Retinal Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
. .74 |
|
Scotopic Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
.75 |
|
Derivation of the Photopic Luminosity Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
.77 |
|
Specification of Light Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
.79 |
|
Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
.82 |
|
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
.91 |
|
Self-Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
.92 |
5. |
Color Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
.93 |
|
Trichromatic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
.93 |
|
Absorption Spectra of the Cone Photopigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
102 |
|
Grassman’s Laws of Metamers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
104 |
|
Color Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
107 |
|
Wavelength Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
109 |
|
Bezold–Brücke Phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
111 |
|
Color Constancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
112 |
|
Physiological Basis of Color Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
113 |
|
Munsell Color Appearance System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
119 |
|
CIE Color Specification System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
120 |
|
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
128 |
|
Self-Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
129 |
6. Anomalies of Color Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
131 |
|
|
Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
131 |
|
Basic Data of Inherited Color Vision Anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
133 |
|
Color Labeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
141 |
|
Inheritance of Anomalous Color Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
144 |
|
Molecular Genetics of Red–Green Color Vision Anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . |
145 |
|
Acquired Color Vision Anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
148 |
|
Achromatopsias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
150 |
|
Chromatopsias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
150 |
|
Standard Color Vision Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
151 |
|
Nagel Anomaloscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
157 |
|
Additional Clinical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
163 |
|
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
167 |
|
Self-Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
168 |
7. |
Spatial Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
169 |
|
Sine Wave Gratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
169 |
|
Fourier Analysis: Basic Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
173 |
|
Spatial Modulation Transfer Function of a Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
174 |
|
The Human Contrast Sensitivity Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
177 |
|
CSF High-Frequency Cutoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
177 |
|
CSF Low-Frequency Drop-Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
182 |
|
The Visual System as a Fourier Analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
183 |
|
Relationship of CSF to Snellen Acuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
187 |
Contents |
vii |
Clinical Implications of the CSF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
.190 |
Clinical Determination of the CSF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
193 |
Other Forms of Visual Acuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
195 |
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
199 |
Self-Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
200 |
8. Temporal Aspects of Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
201 |
Stimulus Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
201 |
Temporal Modulation Transfer Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
204 |
More on the CFF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
208 |
Other Temporal Visual Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
209 |
Masking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
214 |
Additional Clinical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
215 |
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
217 |
Self-Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
218 |
9. Motion Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
219 |
Stimuli Used to Study Motion Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
219 |
Dorsal Processing Stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
223 |
Roles of Luminance and Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
223 |
Dynamic Visual Acuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
224 |
Saccadic Suppression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
225 |
Additional Clinical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
226 |
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
227 |
Self-Assessment Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
228 |
10. Depth Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
229 |
Monocular Depth Cues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
229 |
Binocular Depth Cues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
236 |
Size Illusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
237 |
Additional Clinical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
239 |
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
241 |
Self-Assessment Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
242 |
11. Psychophysical Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
243 |
Threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
243 |
Determination of Threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
245 |
Signal Detection Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
252 |
Weber’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
260 |
Magnitude of Sensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
265 |
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
267 |
Self-Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
268 |
12. Functional Retinal Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269 The Retina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270 Receptive Fields of Ganglion Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271 Recording from Retinal Neurons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276
viii Contents
Photoreceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276
Horizontal Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
Bipolar Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
Amacrine Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
Ganglion Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
Additional Clinical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290
Self-Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291
13. Parallel Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
. 293 |
What the Frog’s Eye Tells Its Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
.294 |
X- and Y-Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
295 |
Parvo and Magno Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
296 |
Functions of the Parvo and Magno Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
300 |
Additional Clinical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
302 |
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
306 |
Self-Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
307 |
14. Striate Cortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
309 |
Basic Organization of the Cortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
309 |
Simple and Complex Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
311 |
Edges or Gratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
318 |
Striate Cortical Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
318 |
Additional Clinical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
324 |
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
324 |
Self-Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
325 |
15. Information Streams and Extrastriate Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
327 |
Information Diverges Beyond Striate Cortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
327 |
Cortical Modularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
328 |
Role of Area MT/V5 in Motion Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
330 |
IT and Form Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
332 |
Role of V4 in Binocular Rivalry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
333 |
A Word About Visual Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
333 |
Visual Agnosias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
338 |
Phantom Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
340 |
Are There Grandmother Cells? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
341 |
Can Vision Be Trained? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
341 |
A Word of Caution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
342 |
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
343 |
Self-Assessment Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
344 |
16. Gross Electrical Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
Electrooculogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
Electroretinogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
Visually Evoked Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .357
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362
Self-Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363
Contents |
ix |
17. Development and Maturation of Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
. 365 |
Deprivation Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
.365 |
Amblyopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
370 |
Meridional Amblyopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
376 |
Perceptual Consequences of Bilateral Visual Deprivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
379 |
Development of Refractive Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
380 |
Development of Grating Acuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
382 |
Development of Other Visual Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
387 |
Additional Clinical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
391 |
Vision in the Later Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
392 |
Self-Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
400 |
Answers to Self-Assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
401 |
Chapter 3: The Duplex Retina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
401 |
Chapter 4: Photometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
402 |
Chapter 5: Color Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
404 |
Chapter 6: Anomalies of Color Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
405 |
Chapter 7: Spatial Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
406 |
Chapter 8: Temporal Aspects of Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
409 |
Chapter 9: Motion Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
409 |
Chapter 10: Depth Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
409 |
Chapter 11: Psychophysical Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
410 |
Chapter 12: Functional Retinal Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
410 |
Chapter 13: Parallel Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
410 |
Chapter 14: Striate Cortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
411 |
Chapter 15: Information Streams and Extrastriate Processing . . . . . . . . . |
411 |
Chapter 16: Gross Electrical Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
412 |
Chapter 17: Development and Maturation of Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
412 |
Practice Examinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
Practice Examination 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
Practice Examination 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
Practice Examination 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .435
Answers to Practice Examinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .447
Answers to Practice Examination 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .447 Answers to Practice Examination 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .448 Answers to Practice Examination 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
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