Ординатура / Офтальмология / Английские материалы / The Retina and its Disorders_Besharse, Bok_2011

Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) (continued) cell junctions 762, 771–2

dopaminergic neurons 496 hfRPE vs. 762, 764f morphology 762

SRS relationship 761

autologous grafts, RP treatment 697 choroid plexus epithelium vs. 774 definition 815, 830

development 200f, 753, 754f, 774, 774f, 777 early patterning 200t, 201f, 202–3

disease and

AMD and 271, 761, 766 diabetic retinopathy 767–9 extracellular spaces and 761

leukocyte migration and disease 771, 771f oxidative stress and 766

PVR 710f, 711, 767–9, 770–1 RP 697

uveitis and 761, 770–1

disk membrane catabolism 817–18, 817f function 755

growth factor secretion 757, 758f immune system and

cytokines/chemokines and 767, 768t, 769f innate immunity and 375

interactions around SRS 767, 768t, 769f optical coherence tomography 529–30, 530f retinal remodeling and 360, 364

regeneration in Xenopus retina 852 retinomotor movement of melanosomes 221–2

regulation 225

cAMP 222–3, 223f, 224f, 226 visual cycle stages 17, 648, 649f

isomerization to cis form 650 11-cis-RAL synthesis 651 regulation 651

retinyl ester synthesis 650

transfer of all-trans-retinol from photoreceptors to 642, 649 Retinal pigment epithelium, physiology 761–72, 763f

circadian effects (light/dark transitions) 502, 761, 763–4 dopaminergic neurons 496

GAT expression and 231 immune interactions 761, 767

cytokine/chemokine production by RPE 767 effects on proliferation/migration 767

IFNg and 769–70, 771f

PDGF and 767–9, 770f polarized locations 767, 768t

macromolecular movement across 182, 761, 763f leukocyte migration and disease 771, 771f tight junctions and 762, 771–2

melatonin receptors 502

metabolic load and fluid regulation 761, 763 CO2/HCO3 transport role 762, 764, 765f, 766f IFNg and 770

lactate transport and 765, 766f

pHi and changes in fluid absorption 762 in vitro modeling 763–4

morphology, polarity and function 761, 762 oxidative stress and antioxidant role 761, 766

iron deposition and 767 monocyte invasion and 767 smoking relationship 766–7

Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE)–choroid complex 753–60 age-related changes 758

Bruch’s membrane 758 gene expression 758

development 179, 753, 754f function 755

structure 755

Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE)–choroid interactions 756, 759 in adults 757

growth factor secretion 757, 758f, 759 impact of choroidal change on RPE 757 isoform-specific VEGF mouse model 757 receptor expression 757

developmental 179, 756

Retinal plasticity, light damage, protection mechanisms 343 Retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) 169–70, 170f, 367

definition 169, 235, 263

differentiation into photoreceptor precursors 569, 570f, 571f retinal transition cells vs., cell cycle regulation 172, 172f

Retinal regeneration 869 in mammals 872

in zebrafish 863–73 damage models 867 genes 869 mammals vs. 872

Mu¨ller glial cells involved in 867, 868f, 870f, 871–2 process of 870f, 871

Retinal remodeling 360–6 amacrine cells 283 definition 360 events/mechanisms 362

Mu¨ller cell remodeling 364 neuritogenesis 364 neuronal migration 363

receptor reprogramming 362 rewiring 361f, 363

RPE remodeling 364 self-signaling 363

synaptogenesis/microneuromas 363 vascular remodeling 364

light damage injury mechanisms 342 occurrence 360

overview 360 progression/phases 360, 361f

cone effects on 366

factors affecting kinetics 360, 362f phase 0 361f

phase 1 360, 361, 361f phase 2 360, 361, 361f phase 2+ 362

phase 3 360, 361f, 362, 363, 366 prosthetic devices and 355, 357–8 therapy and reversal 364

triggers 360 vascular 548 Retinal tears 802f

conservative management 804 identification 802

laser demarcation 805 pathophysiology 801

Retinal topographic maps, starburst amacrine cells and 451 Retinal transition cells (RTCs) 169–70, 170f

definition 169

retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) vs., cell cycle regulation 172, 172f Retinal transplantation 367–73

aim 373

early work 367

fetal donor material 369 growth factors and 373 inhibitory barriers and 371 limitations 367

retinal remodeling reversal/prevention 365 RPE transplants 367

Retinal vasculature 183, 653–60 adult 541

anatomy 29, 181f, 183 arterial blood supply 653

capillary-free zone around arteries 655, 656f

dual nature (ophthalmic artery vs. choroidal) 653–4 perfusion pressure and 653–4

physiology 184 autoregulation 34, 659 blow flow rate 184

capillary bed 181f, 184, 655, 656f cotton wool spots and 656 foveal region 657, 657f

layers 655, 657f

macular region 655f, 657 physiology 184

radial peripapillary capillaries 656, 657f development 183, 541, 795

cell–cell interactions in 546 early 542

mechanisms 542

imaging, adaptive optics (AO) 13f, 15 nerve supply and 658, 659f pathology 185

causes 346–8

diabetic retinopathy 185 infarction 183–4

retinal remodeling and 364 retinopathy of prematurity 185

physiology 184

retinal layers and 653, 654f, 655 vasoconstriction 34

venous drainage 183–4, 657

arteriovenous crossings 184, 655f, 656f, 657–8 central retinal vein 655f, 658, 658f, 659f physiology 184

postcapillary venules 656f, 657–8 superior branch veins 655f, 658, 658f

Retinal vein occlusion 75 branch 75 hemi-central 75

Retinal vessel analyzer (RVA) 36

Retina Society Terminology Committee, PVR clinical classification 714 Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) 354, 470, 684–97, 854

acquired color blindness 136 allied disorders 684, 698 animal models

Drosophila models 730–1 mouse (rd1) 857

Xenopus laevis models 849, 850 classification 687

age of onset 687

ERG and 692, 693f, 694f, 695f functional loss 690 inheritance pattern 687, 687t

clinical features/diagnosis 690

anterior segment and cataracts 690, 695 OCT 692

refractive errors 690 visual symptoms 690, 857

definition 354, 637, 685, 699, 726, 847, 853 differential diagnosis 692

autoimmune retinopathy 693–4

diffuse unilateral neuroretinitis 693, 696f drug-induced disease 693

infectious disease 693, 695f inflammatory disease 693 trauma 692–3

gene mutations 650, 651, 685, 688t CHM gene 703

CRB1 gene 701–2 OAT gene 702–3 PDE6B gene 686, 857 RDH5 gene 702

rhodopsin mutations and 645–6, 686, 701, 730–1, 850 RLBP1 gene 702

RP1 gene 686 USH24 gene 686

histological features 690, 699

bone spicule pigmentation 685f, 690, 699, 700f bull’s eye maculopathy 699, 701f

Coats-like response 700, 701f drusen 699, 700f

optic nerve pallor 699, 700f historical aspects 685 inheritance 686, 687, 687t, 730–1

autosomal dominant 686, 690 autosomal recessive 686, 690 X-linked disorders 686, 701, 703

nonsyndromic 686 pathophysiology 690 apoptosis and 857

prevalence 686 prognosis 694, 857 retinal remodeling 360

RPE remodeling 364 self-signaling and 363 vascular remodeling 364

RPE barrier breakdown 66 syndromic forms 686, 703 abetalipoproteinemia 703

Alstro¨m syndrome 704 Bardet–Biedl syndrome 686, 687f CPEO 704

Drosophila models 730–1 Friedreich’s ataxia 704

incontinentia pigmenti 704 Joubert syndrome 704 mucopolysaccharidoses 704 neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis 704 Refsum disease 705 Senior–Loken syndrome 705 spinocerebellar ataxia (type 7) 705 Usher syndrome 686, 730–1 vitamin E deficiency 704

terminology 698–707 treatment 694

autologous RPE grafts 697 CNTF/neuroprotection 696 docosahexanoic acid 696 gene therapy 696 microelectrode implants 697

optimizing remaining vision 695 patient resources/support 694 stem cell therapy 697

treatable vs. nontreatable forms 694

viral expression of photosensitive proteins 697 vitamin A 696

vitamin E 696

visual testing in 691, 705 dark adaptation 691 visual field 691, 691f, 692f

Retinitis pigmentosa, fundus examination classification by pattern 689, 700

choroideremia 703, 704f classic pattern 685f, 700, 702f concentric RP 701

fundus albipunctata 702, 703f gyrate atrophy 702, 703f inverse RP 700

pigmented paravenous retinochoroidal atrophy 702, 703f retinitis punctata albescens 702

RP with preserved peri-arteriolar RPE 701 sector RP 701, 702f

sine pigmento 701

tapetal-like reflex/sheen 701, 703f unilateral RP 689

diagnosis 685, 685f, 690, 692 Retinitis pigmentosa sine pigmento 701

Retinitis pigmentosa with preserved peri-arteriolar RPE (PPARPE) 701 Retinoblastoma gene/protein (Rb/Rb)

in cell-cycle regulation 170, 171f retinal development role 172f, 173, 174f

Retinochrome definition 582 squid 585

Retinohypothalamic tract 112, 113f Retinoic acid (RA)

developmental role 268

optic cup patterning 203, 268 photoreceptors 268

pathway 268, 268f Retinoid isomerization 650

alternative in cone-dominant species 19, 19f all-trans-Retinoids

horizontal cells and 315

isomerization by Rpe65-isomerase 650 Mu¨ller cells and 17–18

Retinol (ROL) 649f

oxidation of 11-cis-ROL to 11-cis-RAL 651

transfer of all-trans-ROL from photoreceptors to RPE 649 all-trans-Retinol (all-trans-ROL)

reduction of all-trans-RAL to form 17, 649 transfer from photoreceptors to RPE 642, 649

11-cis-Retinol (11-cis-ROL) 650 Mu¨ller cells and synthesis 18

all-trans-Retinol dehydrogenase (all-trans-RDH) 17 Retinol dehydrogenases (RDHs) 642

all-trans-RDH 17 RDH5 651 RDH8 649 RDH12 649

retinitis pigmentosa 702 Retinomotor movements in fish 219–27

circadian rhythms 219–20, 225 force production 221–2

elongation/contraction 220–1, 221f

Retinomotor movements in fish (continued) melanin granule movements 220, 222f

function 226 overview 219, 220f regulation 219–20

adenosine 225 calcium 226

cAMP 222–3, 223f, 224f, 226 carbachol 226

dopamine 223–4, 225–6

Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) 185, 790–800 animal models 796

mouse OIR 796, 796t, 797f rat 50/50 OIR 793f, 796, 796t stages modeled 796

classification 790

aggressive posterior 790, 796

flat mount vs. clock hour description 791, 793f peripheral severe 790, 796

plus disease 790, 791, 792f stage 790–1, 792f threshold/prethreshold 793t zone 790–1, 791f

clinical background 790 epidemiology 790 genetic factors 795 pathophysiology 795

avascular retina and 790, 796 erythropoietin 798

HIF1a 798

IGF-1 and binding proteins 798 light role 799

oxygen and oxidative stress 795, 798 VEGF and 795, 798

retinal detachment and 792, 794f screening 791

treatment 792

acute neovascular changes 792 antioxidants 799

anti-VEGF antibodies 798 clinical studies 792

fibrovascular stages/retinal detachment 792 future considerations 799

surgery risks 793–5

type 1 prethreshold/threshold ROP 792, 793f, 793t visual rehabilitation 795

Retinopathy/retinal degeneration 698–707, 854 animal models 854

comparative merits 727 mice 854, 857

atrophy

chronic rhegmatogenous retinal detachment 803 definition 685, 699

cilia and 680–1

cilia-associated proteins 681–2 definition 685, 699, 847

dopaminergic interplexiform cells and 475 dystrophy, definition 685, 699 inflammation role 341

glial scar formation 372, 372f light-dependent 731 light-independent 731

mixed mechanisms 732 primary

definition 684, 698

with secondary photoreceptor degeneration 684, 698 therapy

bionic implants 365 history 367

retinal remodeling reversal 364 trophic factors 365

Retinopexy, definition 801 Retinoschisis

definition 118

due to mutation in retinoschisin 122 juvenile X-linked, mfERG results 510, 514f

Retinotopy, definition 354 Retinotoxic drugs 837–9, 838t Retinyl ester(s) 649f

definition 648

isomerization to cis form 650 synthesis 650

N-Retinylidene-phosphatidylethanolamine (N-ret-PE) 648–9 Retrobulbar space, definition 38

Retrobulbar vessels, definition 28

RGS5 (regulator of G protein signaling 5) 549–50 Rhabdom

definition 416

Limulus photoreceptors 419, 616 eye-type-specific organization 419–20 shedding, circadian regulation 422, 422f structural changes, circadian regulation 420

Rhabdomeral lobes 583f definition 582

Rhabdomere 241f

circadian changes in fly 127–9 definition 124, 205, 240, 567, 582, 726 Gq opsins 208

Rhabdomeric Gq opsins 208 Rhabdomeric photoreceptors 567–8 Rhegma, definition 801

Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment (RRD) 801–10 break types 802

retinal dialyses 801, 803, 803f retinal holes 801, 802, 802f tractional tears 801, 802, 802f

clinical features 801 break localization 803 chronic RRD 803 signs 802

symptoms 801 definition 801

differential diagnosis 803, 805t historical aspects 801 management 804

complications 808 conservative 804 laser demarcation 804

new developments 809 outcomes 807

pneumatic retinopexy 805, 807, 809 primary aim 804

retinal dialysis 804, 805, 806, 807 retinal hole 804, 805, 806, 807 retinal tears 804, 805, 806

scleral bucking 806, 807f, 808, 809 treatment failure 809

vitrectomy 806, 808, 808f, 809 pathophysiology 801

Rhodopsin 610–11, 631–2, 634, 637–47, 648, 812–13 cone opsins vs. 18–19

cycling 17, 18f, 610, 611, 642f activation by light 610–11 bathorhodopsin 641 lumirhodopsin 641–2

metarhodopsin (I and II) 611, 641–2, 648 opsin 611

photorhodopsin 641–2 regeneration 642, 651

retinal isomerization 641, 648 vertebrate vs. invertebrate 642

definition 205, 206, 610, 819 desensitization 644

Drosophila 729

inactivation 611, 644, 644f, 645f light adaptation and 599–600, 601

intraflagellar transport 580–1 light damage role 338, 339 light protection role 343 mutation and disease 645, 646f

autosomal dominant RP and 686, 731 Drosophila mutants 730–1

light-dependent retinal degeneration and 731 light-independent retinal degeneration and 731 sector retinitis pigmentosa and 701 transport/trafficking effects 678

Xenopus laevis models 849, 850 protein interactions 644, 644f

rod cell structure and distribution 637, 638f, 676 signaling 412, 644

regulation by phosphorylation 644, 644f transducin activation 644

squid

activation/deactivation 583f, 584–5, 584f

Soluble VEGF receptor 1 (sVEGFR-1) antiangiogenic activity 549

corneal avascularity role 549 Soma

definition 381

retinal ganglion cell 386 Somatostatin

retinal

cellular signaling 479, 481f, 482f

circadian regulation of CNGCs in photoreceptors 121 excitation of ganglion cells 483, 484f

intracellular signaling 478 neurotransmitter release 484 receptors 477–8

Somatotropin-release-inhibiting factor (SRIF) GABA co-localization 490

mRNA localization 488

peptide immunostaining studies 489, 490f radioimmunoassay 487–8

receptor autoradiography 491 receptor immunostaining 492, 492f receptor mRNA expression 491

Sorbitol pathway, pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy 783

SPARC (secreted protein, acidic, and rich in cysteine), neovascularization and 351

Spatial contrast sensitivity, light level and 561 Spatial frequency

channels 164, 165f, 166f definition 163

Spatially offset inhibition, definition 295 Spatial processing

contrast adaptation 329 contrast sensitivity and 290 horizontal cells and 316

Spatiotemporal vision

cone phototransduction and 162 definition 22

RGCs as spatiotemporal filters 304, 304f Spectral absorbance, definition 96 Spectral absorptance, definition 96 Spectral absorptivity, definition 96 Spectral luminous efficiency (SLE)

definition 558 function

applications 561 concept 560 definition 96

mesopic 559

Spectral power distribution (SPD), definition 558 Spectral radiance, definition 558

Spectral responsivity (SR), definition 558 Spectral sensitivity, definition 96 Spectral transmittance t(l), definition 96 Spectral tuning, definition 205

Specular reflection, definition 668 Spherule, definition 819

Spinocerebellar ataxia (type 7), retinitis pigmentosa and 705 Splinter hemorrhages, NA-AION 402, 403f Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia 253, 258f, 260

SQRK (squid rhodopsin kinase) 586 Squid

photoresponse 582–8

activation/inactivation 582, 583f, 584f, 585 arrestin 587

PLC 586

rhodopsin 584–5, 586 arrestin 587

calpain-like protease 586 eye structure 582, 583f Gq protein 585

light-activated ion channel 586 phospholipase C 586 rhodopsin 582, 586, 587 rhodopsin kinase 586, 588

polarized light, behavior based on 673–4 SSMP prostheses, clinical trials 356–7

Sst receptors, retinal 478

Standard achromatic perimetry (SAP) 553 definition 551

Starburst amacrine cells (SACs) 450 definition 318

morphology 276–8, 277f, 296–7, 297f, 450, 450f networks/information processing

midget BC to GC pathway 281 mutual inhibition and 322, 322f rod pathway 280, 281f

neurochemistry 451 OFFvs. ON-types 451 populations of 450–1

postnatal development and 451 transretinal waves 451

Starburst amacrine cells, directional selectivity role 282, 282f, 298, 322, 322f, 451

ablation studies 297–8 cooperative integration and 299

geometrically asymmetric DSGC regulation 297, 298, 298f, 306

centrifugal excitation vs. centripetal inhibition 298–9 cholinergic excitation 296–7, 298–9

GABAergic inhibition 296–7, 306

mechanism of functional asymmetry 297f, 298 own DS properties 306

Stargardt’s disease 648–9 definition 847

Xenopus laevis model 851

stat3 gene, retinal regeneration 869–71 Static suprathreshold perimetry 552

test strategies 552t

Static threshold perimetry 551 definition 551

Stell model of chromatic processing 316–17, 316f Stem cell(s), neovascularization and 351 Stem/progenitor cell therapy 367–73

aim 373

ethical issues 368

induced pluripotent stem cells 368 importance/advantages 368 production 368, 369f

technical problems 368 inhibitory barriers and 371

glial scarring and 372, 372f myelin-associated ECM and 372

neural (brain-derived) progenitor cells 367 adult hippocampal 367

limitations 368 neuroprotection and 369 retinal progenitor cells 368–9

retinal remodeling reversal/prevention 365 retinitis pigmentosa treatment 697

total stem cell deficiency transplantation strategies 370

bolus cell injection techniques 370, 371f efficacy 370

MMP2 and ECM digestion 372–3 polymer scaffolds and 370

Stickler syndrome 252 arthropathy 253 cataract 253, 257f molecular genetics 260 myopia 253 ocular-only form 260–1

orofacial abnormalities 253, 257f retinal detachment 253, 256f type 1 vs. type 2 252, 256f

Weissenbacher–Zweymuller syndrome 253 Stiles–Crawford effect 7, 326

Strabismus, retinopathy of prematurity and 795 Stroke, NA-AION vs. 401

Subjective day, definition 124 Subjective night, definition 124

Sublamina of the inner plexiform layer 470

Subretinal demarcation lines, chronic rhegmatogenous retinal detachment 803

Subretinal space (SRS) 761, 774, 774f chemical composition 761

blood–retinal barrier breakdown and 767 light to dark transition effects 763–4

definition 87, 761, 773 disease role 761

RPE relationship 761

immune interactions 767, 768t, 769f metabolic load and fluid regulation 763

definition 134, 140, 205

horizontal cell cone selectivity and 467 Trophic factors

bystander effect and 857–8, 858f definition 753

TRP (transient receptor potential), definition 438 TRP (transient receptor potential) channels

definition 205, 240

Drosophila 240, 245 activation 246f, 248, 248f biophysical properties 245 discovery 245

future studies 251 phototransduction role 617, 622 structural features 247f

Limulus phototransduction and 622 trp gene 245, 247f

TRPL (transient receptor potential-like) channels comparison with squid photoreceptor channels 586

Drosophila 245

activation 246f, 248, 248f biophysical properties 245–6

inactivation no afterpotential D (INAD) protein and 249, 250f structural features 247f

TRPV1 channels 717

arachidonoyl ethanolamide as ligand 720

Tryptophanyl-tRNA synthase fragment (T2-TrpRS), antiangiogenic activity 549

Tumor necrosis factor a (TNFa)

blood–retinal barrier (BRB) breakdown and 54 proangiogenic actions 546

Tumors/mass lesions, PVR and 713, 713f, 714f

TUNEL (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling) apoptosis role 868f

definition 38, 863

Tupaia belangeri (tree shrew), horizontal cells 465–6, 466f Turtle(s), bipolar cells 459–60, 459f

Two-flash apparent motion stimulation definition 295

starburst amacrine role in directional selectivity 298–9 Type properties, definition 452

Tyrosine kinase, role in circadian rhythm generation 120

U

3D Ultrahigh resolution retinal OCT (3D UHR OCT) 526, 527f Ultraviolet radiation (UVR), insect vision and 209–10

Unc119 (protein) 664 Unique hues, definition 96

United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) definition 781

glycemic control as risk factor 782 U-shaped tears 801, 802, 802f Usherin, RP and 686, 730–1

Usher syndrome

cilia involvement 682 retinitis pigmentosa and 686

Uveitis

definition 44, 51, 541 RPE role 761

UV opsin, butterfly 150–1, 151t

V

Vaccine, glaucoma 734

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) angiogenesis/neovascularization role 271, 350, 351f, 352, 542, 542t

choroidal neovascularization 91 anti-VEGF therapy in AMD 271, 834

blood–retinal barrier (BRB) breakdown role 53 definition 270, 346, 781

isoform-specific mouse model 757 macular edema role 79, 83 neuroprotection and 798

retinal vasculature and development 183

diabetic retinopathy and 185 remodeling and 364

retinopathy of prematurity and 185, 795, 798 RPE secretion 757, 758f

Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor(s) (VEGFRs), neovascularization role 352

Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR-2), choroid 757

Vascular remodeling, retinal 548 Vasculogenesis

definition 179, 541

postnatal (adult), in choroidal neovascularization (CNV) 92 Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), retinal

excitation of ganglion cells 483 GABA co-localization 490 mRNA localization 488 peptide immunostaining 489–90 receptor autoradiography 491 receptor mRNA expression 491 signaling pathway 491

cellular 479, 482f intercellular 478–9

Vasoconstriction, retinal microvasculature 34 VEGF–TNF receptor-associated protein (TRAP) 93

in diabetic macular edema treatment 83 VEGFxxxb isoforms, antiangiogenic activity 549 Venules, retinal venous drainage 656f, 657–8 Vernier acuity 4–5, 5f

definition 717

Versican, vitreoretinopathy 261 Vesicle release rate, rods 822

Vesicular inhibitory amino acid transporter (VIAAT) 228 retinal locations 228–9, 229t

Vesicular transport

blood–retinal barrier (BRB) 52, 53f definition 51

Viral vectors, retinitis pigmentosa and 697 Vision models 854

Visual acuity 1–6 across retina 4, 4f

age-related changes 4, 5f dynamic 5

GCA and A-AION 405 hyperacuity 4, 5f

light level and 561, 562f measurement 1–3 NA-AION 401–2

National Academy of Sciences recommendations 1 nonischemic CRVO

ischemic CRVO vs. 79, 79t untreated 85, 85t

opticak/neural limits 3 PION 409

reporting 3, 3t

retinitis pigmentosa 690 standards/requirements 4 Visual adaptation, definition 22

Visual angle 165, 167f definition 1

Visual assessment, zebrafish models of retinal disease 856 Visual correction, adaptive optics (AO) 9

Visual cortex, acquired color blindness 137 Visual cycle 648–52

clearance of all-trans-RAL from OS disks 648 definition 624

overview 17, 648, 649f

photopigment regeneration 642, 643f, 651 reduction of all-trans-RAL to all-trans-retinol 649 regulation 651

dark adaptation 651 RGR opsin and 651

retinoid isomerization 641, 642f, 650 retinyl ester synthesis 650 rhodopsin/opsin regeneration 651 RPE and 17

synthesis of 11-cis-RAL chromophore 651 transfer of all-trans-retinol from photoreceptors to

RPE 642, 649 Visual-evoked potential

definition 536

optic neuritis 536, 537–8, 538f Visual field, definition 551 Visual field defects

NA-AION 401–2, 402f

PION 409, 409f, 410f

retinitis pigmentosa 690, 691, 691f, 692f