Ординатура / Офтальмология / Английские материалы / The Retina and its Disorders_Besharse, Bok_2011

Monochromatic aberration, correction, adaptive optics (AO) 8, 9f Monocyte chemoattractant protein 3 (MCP-3), RPE secretion 767 Monocytes

choroidal neovascularization role 91 oxidative stress-induced RPE invasion 767

Monokine induced by g interferon (MIG), RPE secretion 767 M-opsin 208–9

Morpholinos 855, 871 definition 863

Motion detection, importance 295 Mouse models 854

AMD 273 glaucoma 40–1

developmental 41 normal-tension 41

optic nerve axon degeneration 386, 387f pressure-induced 40

isoform-specific VEGF 757

retinitis pigmentosa (rd1 mouse) 857 Mouse photoreceptors 568

development 568, 569f, 570f M-sequence stimulation 508

definition 506 Mucin(s)

immunological 374–5 secreted 374–5 surface-associated 374–5 TLRs and 374–5

Mucopolysaccharidoses retinitis pigmentosa and 704

Mu¨ller cells

cannabinoid receptors 720 definition 17

dopamine role 497

endothelial cell interactions, retinal vascular development 546 GABA receptors 234

GAT-3 expression 230

inner blood–retinal barrier (iBRB) 46 neovascularization role 352

persistent neurogenesis 865, 867f, 870f, 871 remodeling/injury response role 360, 364

mammals 872 PVR and 710

zebrafish 867, 868f, 870f, 871–2

visual cycle and see Mu¨ller cells, alternative visual cycle zebrafish pde6 mutants 860

Mu¨ller cells, alternative visual cycle 17–21 cone chromophore source 18

IRBP and 20–1

pigment regeneration in cones 20, 20f rods vs. cones 18–19

11-cis-ROL dehydrogenase activity 19–20 retinoid isomerase in cone-dominant species 19 role in rod-dominant species 21

visual pigment regeneration role 17–18 Multifactorial, definition 75

Multifocal electroretinography (mfERG) 506–24, 706 central serous retinopathy 510, 511f

data handling analysis 508 collection 508 noise reduction 508 recording 507

duration of tests 508, 509f

hydroxychloroquine retinopathy 510, 512f, 513f juvenile X-linked retinoschisis 510, 514f macular edema 436, 436f neuro-ophthalmology

asymmetric glaucoma 520f, 521, 521f demyelination 522f, 523, 523f mfVEP 512, 516f

ONHC component of mfERG 514, 518f, 519f optic neuritis 514, 517f

patient positioning 508 principles 506, 507f

mfVEP 512, 516f

protocol selection 506, 509, 517–19 small scotoma 511, 515f

stimulus production 508

Multifocal visual-evoked potentials (mfVEP) asymmetric glaucoma 520f, 521, 521f demyelination 523f

noise reduction 508 optic neuritis 514, 517f principles 507f, 512, 516f stimulus production 512f

Multifunctional O-acyltransferase (MFAT) 650 Multiple sclerosis (MS)

acquired color blindness 137 definition 536

optic neuritis 537 Multipolar neurons 276 Multipotency, definition 263

Multipotent progenitor, definition 745 Musca domestica (housefly) visual system 124

circadian changes circuits underlying 132

in inter-receptor invaginations 131 in pigment granules 131

plasticity of L1/L2 monopolar cells 130–1 serotonin role 131

Myelin, ECM and transplantation barrier 372 Myelination, definition 506

Myofibroblast(s), definition 708 Myoid

definition 219

retinomotor movement 220, 220f, 221 structure 811–12, 812f

Myopia

dopamine role 498

retinopathy of prematurity and 795 Stickler syndrome and 253

Myopic regression, post-LASIK 4:11 Myosin(s)

circadian phosphorylation in Limulus 418f, 423, 423f class III

domain structure 423, 423f Limulus lateral eye 616

retinomotor movement photoreceptors 220, 221 RPE cells 222

VIIa, Usher syndrome and 682

N

National Academy of Sciences, standard for visual acuity measurement 1 Natural killer (NK) cells. pathogen clearance 379

Navigation, using polarized light 673–4 Neoantigens

AMD pathogenesis 272 definition 270

Neofunctionalization, definition 148

Neovascular age-related macular degeneration (NVAMD) 87, 831–2 acquired color blindness 136

blood–retinal barrier breakdown 62–4, 63f, 64f, 65f fundoscopy 831f

treatment 834 variants 93–5

polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy (PCV) 93, 93f retinal angiomatous proliferation (RAP) 93, 94, 94f

Neovascular glaucoma, in ischemic CRVO 80–1 management 85

Neovascularization definition 75, 541 intravitreous

avascular retina and 796–7 definition 790

ischemia-mediated 543, 543f in ischemic CRVO 79, 80f

panretinal photocoagulation 83–5, 84f Neovascularization, injury-induced 346–53

acute responses

angiogenic mediators 350 blood–retina barrier breakdown 348 complement activation 350 cytokines 348, 349f, 350, 351

ECM modulation 350, 351f animal models 348, 348f, 349f causes 346

cellular responses 350–1 astrocytes 349f, 352 macrophages 351 microglia 352

Mu¨ller cells 352 neutrophils 351 stem/progenitor cells 351

to VEGF-A receptor binding 352 definition 346

in diabetic retinopathy 783–4, 786, 788f fundoscopy 347f, 348f

Nerve of Tiedemann 658, 659f Nested feedback, definition 276

Neural progenitor cells, retinal repair/regeneration brain-derived 367

retinal 368

Neural retina (NR) development 199, 200f, 200t, 201f, 202 Neuritogenesis

definition 360

retinal remodeling 363 NeuroD1, retinal histogenesis 750–1

Neurodegenerative disease, acquired color blindness 137 Neurokinin A (NKA)

retina

mRNA localization 488 receptor autoradiography 491 signaling pathway 491

Neurokinin B (NKB) retina

receptor autoradiography 491 signaling pathway 491 retinal 478

Neurokinin receptor(s), retina NK1 478, 492, 492f

NK2 492–3

NK3 478, 492–3, 493f receptor autoradiography 491

receptor immunohistochemistry 492 signaling pathway 491

Neuromodulation/neuromodulators dopaminergic interneurons and 473 melatonin role 503 neuromodulator definition 494

Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (Batten disease), retinitis pigmentosa and 704

Neuronal migration definition 360

retinal remodeling 363 Neuropeptide receptors 487, 491

cloning 491

Neuropeptide Y (NPY), retina GABA co-localization 490 immunostaining studies 489, 489f mRNA localization 488 neurotransmitter release 484 receptor mRNA expression 491 signaling pathway 479, 480f, 491

Neuroprotection 736 definition 734, 736

light-driven protein translocation 413 retinitis pigmentosa management 696 stem/progenitor cell therapy and 369

Neuroprotective agents glaucoma 736, 738

antioxidants 740 cannabinoids 724 neurotrophic factors 736 NMDA-antagonists 738 study models 743, 743t vaccine 734

VEGF 798

Neuropsin 208 Neurotransmitters

catecholamines 494 definition 22 endocannabinoid effects 720 receptors

retinal remodeling 362

retinal, neuropeptides and 479, 483, 485 Neurotrophic factors

definition 734

light damage, protection mechanisms 343–4 neuroprotective effects 736

retinal remodeling reversal/prevention 365 retinal transplantation and 373

withdrawal 736, 737f

Neurotrophin hypothesis 386 Neutrophils

neovascularization and 351 pathogen clearance 379

New vessels elsewhere (NVE) 786–7, 788f definition 781

New vessels on disk (NVD) 786–7, 788f definition 781

Night blindness

retinitis pigmentosa 690

Xenopus laevis model 849 Nitric oxide (NO)

horizontal cell modulation 315 retinal

neuropeptides and 479 vascular autoregulation role 34

NK1 receptor 478, 492, 492f NK2 receptor 493

NK3 receptor 492–3, 493f

NMDA receptor(s), amacrine cells 278

NMDA receptor antagonists, as neuroprotective agents 738 Nocturnal arterial hypotension, NA-AION 399, 400f NOD-like receptors (NLRs) 377–8

eye distribution 378, 378t

immune response initiation/amplification 379 ligand specificity 378t

No light perception (NLP), definition 354 Nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy

(NA-AION) 399 arteritic AION vs. 407 clinical features 401

amiodarone and 403 bilateral (NA-AION) 402 diabetics 402, 404f familial 403

phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors and 403 recurrence in same eye 403 symptoms/signs 401–2, 402f, 403f, 404f

fundus angiograms 401f, 402f, 403f, 404f incipient 405

management 403 controversy 404–5 natural history and 403–4 techniques used 404–5

pathogenesis 399, 400f

embolic lesions of vessels serving nerve head 399 nocturnal arterial hypotension 399, 400f

transient nerve head circulation disruption 399, 400f risk factors 399

nocturnal arterial hypotension 399–401, 400f predisposing vs. precipitating factors 399–401 reduction of 404–5

stroke vs. 401

Nonarteritic posterior ischemic optic neuropathy (PION) 410

management 410

Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) definition 781

Nonlinear response, definition 506 Nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR) 784

classification 785, 786t definition 781 fundoscopy 784f macular edema 785, 785f

clinically significant 785, 787f, 787t Nonvisual photoresponses 112

definition 112

visual responses vs. 113

Norrin, retinopathy of prematurity and 795 Notch signaling pathway 263

definition 863

proangiogenic actions 545, 546f

retinal histogenesis 175, 176f, 263, 264f, 750, 751f, 865 Nr2e1 213

structural domains 213–14, 213f NRL

disease associations 572

in photoreceptor cell fate determination 570–1, 570f rods 570–1, 570f

Nystagmus searching 333

recessive optic atrophy 335–6

O

OAT gene/protein, retinitis pigmentosa 702–3 Obesity, risk factor for AMD 833

Object motion sensitive (OMS) ganglion cells 305, 306 excitatory receptive field 306

inhibitory input 306–7 mechanism of action 307

Occludin 46

in diabetic retinopathy pathogenesis 783 tight junctions 51–2

Ocellus (ocelli) definition 416 insects 124

Drosophila 729 photoentrainment and 127

Limulus 418, 419f, 616 Octopamine

circadian regulation of Limulus eyes 422t, 423 definition 416

Ocular blood flow

anatomical aspects 28, 29f, 30f future studies 37 measurement 35

angiography 35

blue field entoptic technique 36 color Doppler imaging 35, 35f laser Doppler flowmetry 36, 36f laser Doppler velocimetry 36 laser speckle technique 36 optical Doppler tomography 37 pulsatile flow 36

retinal vessel diameters 36 regulation 34

Ocular drug delivery, retinal, BRB permeability and 49 Ocular fluid flow 47, 59, 59f

mechanisms 59–60

Na, K-ATPase pump 60 Ocular inflammation

light damage role 339f, 341 retinopathies 341

RP differential diagnosis 693 Ocular vasculature

blood flow autoregulation 653, 659 development 179–85

choroidal network 179 retinal network 183, 795

pathology

hyaloid vascular network 183 proliferative vitreoretinopathy and 711, 712f

OFF bipolar cells 284, 290–1, 319, 319f, 389, 452 axon terminal development 392–3 center-surround organization and 286, 287f definition 661

GABAergic regulation by horizontal cells 313 OFF-cone bipolar cells 23–4

horizontal cell interactions 319, 319f mixed rod/cone 285–6 neuropeptides and 482–3

OFF-cone bipolar cells 23–4 glutamate receptors 23 rod synapses 820–1, 820f

photoreceptor cell contacts 662

polarization in phase with photoreceptors 319 OFF pathway 319, 319f

definition 318

ON pathway interaction (crossover inhibition) 320, 321f amacrine cells and 322

rod–OFF pathway 845 OFF-RGCs 301

contrast sensitivity and 291 direction-selective (DS) cells 305–6

OFF-starburst cells 451 Oguchi disease 332

Old World primates, horizontal cell morphology 465, 465f, 466f Olfactory granule cells, amacrine cell homology 276, 277f

OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance In Man) database, definition 252 Ommatidium/ommatidia

butterfly

structure 149, 149f variation 150f

definition 416

Drosophila 124, 241f, 729, 729f Limulus lateral eyes 416–17

circadian changes 420, 421f

ON bipolar cells 284, 290–1, 319, 319f, 389, 452 axon terminal development 392–3, 392f center-surround organization and 286, 287f definition 284, 661

dopaminergic neuron regulation 494 GABAergic regulation by horizontal cells 313 glutamate receptors

ON-cone bipolar cells 23–4 horizontal cell interactions 319, 319f melatonin effects 503

mixed rod/cone 285–6 neuropeptides and 482–3 ON-cone bipolar cells 23

polarization out of phase with PRs 319

Online Mendelian Inheritance In Man (OMIM) database, definition 252 ON–OFF-RGCs 301

direction-selective (DS) cells 305–6 ON pathway 319, 319f

definition 318

OFF pathway interaction (crossover inhibition) 320, 321f amacrine cells and 322

ON-RGCs 301

contrast sensitivity and 291 direction-selective (DS) cells 305–6

ON-starburst cells 451

ON-sustained interplexiform cells 474–5 ON-transient interplexiform cells 474–5 OPA1 gene 335

Ophthalmic artery 28, 29f, 179, 653 branches 179, 180f

definition 28 Ophthalmoscopy, definition 75 Opsin(s)

butterfly 149–50, 150f

genetic diversification 151, 152f, 153f, 154 spectral heterogeneity 150, 151t

cone opsins 605–6, 626 evolution 209 genetics 141, 142f human 209 non-human209 rhodopsin vs. 18

thermal stability and 606 definition 17, 206, 648

Drosophila 729

evolution 205–11, 605–6

convergent evolution of type I and II 206, 207f co-option and 210

evolutionary relationships of type II opsins 207f gene duplication 209, 210

gene loss and 209 modes 210

functions 206 human

cone opsins 209 RGRs 208

non-visual

mammalian 113, 115t nonmammalian 113

photoisomerization 206 regeneration 651

rod/cone homologies 605–6, 626 structure 206

transport within photoreceptor 816–17, 816f type I

definition 205 occurrence 206 type II vs. 206

type II

ciliary (Gt) 208 cnidops 206

color vision and 208 definition 205

as GPCRs 206

major classes 206–8, 207f, 209t

retinal G-protein receptor/Go clade 208 rhabdomeric (Gq) 208

type I vs. 206

wavelength sensitivity (l-max) 206, 208–9, 210 Opsonization, definition 270, 374

Optical aberrations, monochromatic, correction with adaptive optics 8, 9f Optical coherence tomography (OCT) 525–35

advantages 525 choroidal

neovascularization (CNV) 89, 90f three-dimensional wide-field 527, 528f

definition 525, 781, 847 development/historical aspects 525, 526f optic neuritis 539

retinitis pigmentosa diagnosis 692 see also Anterior segment OCT

Optical density, definition 96

Optical Doppler tomography, ocular blood flow measurement 37 Optic cup

development 199, 200f

dorso-ventral patterning 200t, 201f, 203 retinoic acid role 203, 268

Optic lobe (insect) 124, 125f, 126f neuropil 124, 125f

cartridges 124–5 Optic nerve

anatomy 30, 31f, 536 definition 381

demyelinating disease, mfERG/mfVEP results 522f, 523, 523f Limulus visual system 417, 418, 419f

pallor, waxy in RP 699, 700f prosthetic devices and 355 regeneration in amphibians 848

as site of occlusion in CRVO 76, 76f transection, Xenopus laevis glaucoma model 849 vasculature 30–1, 31f, 32f

histology 32–4

lamina cribrosa region 31, 33f prelaminar region 31, 32f retrolaminar region 31, 33f superficial nerve fibre layer 31, 32f

Optic nerve axons

elevated IOP-induced damage 381–8 biomechanical engineering studies 382, 383f, 384f ganglion cell axon dysfunction 382, 386

mouse model 386, 387f Optic nerve head (ONH)

edema

GCA and A-AION 405, 405f NA-AION 402, 402f, 403f

glial cells, elevated IOP-induced modulation 382, 385f vascular supply 30–1

Optic nerve head component (ONHC) of mfERG 514, 518f, 519f comparison with mfVEP in asymmetric glaucoma 520f, 521, 521f demyelination 522f, 523

Optic nerve sheath decompression, NA-AION management 404 Optic neuritis 536–40

acquired color blindness 137 definition 536

diagnosis 537

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis 538 clinical examination 537

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 538, 538f optical coherence tomography 539

retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) 539 visual-evoked potential 537–8, 538f

differential diagnosis 539 Devic’s disease 539

epidemiology 537 etiology 537

multiple sclerosis 537 immunopathogenesis 536 T lymphocytes 536–7 mfVEP results 514, 517f

prognosis 540 Snellen chart 540

symptoms 537 treatment 539

corticosteroids 539–40

neuroprotective treatment strategies 540 apoptosis 540

retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) 540

optic neuritis treatment trial (ONTT) 539–40

Optic neuropathy acute conditions 399 hereditary 333–7

clinical features 333 genetics 336–7

as metabolic disorders 333 treatment options 337

Optic neuropil (insects) 124, 125f lamina 124, 125f

cartridges 124–5

daily morphological changes 130, 130f lobula 124, 125f

medulla 124, 125f

Optic stalk, development 200f, 201f Optic vesicle, development 198, 199f

proximo-distal patterning 200t, 200–1, 201f Optokinetic nystagmus, definition 295 Optokinetic response (OKR)

definition 853

zebrafish models of retinal disease 856

Optomotor responses, zebrafish models of retinal disease 856 Optophysiology

definition 525

in vitro rabbit retina 531–2, 532f in vivo human retina 532–3, 533f

Optotype(s) 1, 2f definition 1

National Academy of Sciences standard for visual acuity measurement 1 Orbital vascular pathology, PVR and 713, 713f, 714f

Orofacial abnormalities, Stickler syndrome 253, 257f Orthodenticle protein homolog 2 (OTX2) 569–70, 570f, 571f Ortholog, definition 500

Osmotic avoidance abnormal protein (OSM-3) 579–80

Outer blood–retinal barrier (oBRB) 44, 45f, 47, 58, 654f, 659, 773–80 assessment methods 60

clinical assays 61 electrophysiologic 60 ex vivo assays 61

fluorescein angiography 61, 61f, 62f occludin immunolocalization 60, 60f

optical coherence tomography (OCT) 61, 61f in vitro assays 60–1

in vivo assays 61 culture models 778 definition 44, 58 diseases and 779 function 774

assessment methods 60 cellular level 775 improvement studies 67 molecular level 775 tissue level 774

molecular/fluid movement across 47, 59, 774f, 775 mechanisms 59–60

Na, K-ATPase pump 60 polarity 47

structure 58, 59f, 774 assessment methods 60 cellular level 775 molecular level 775 tissue level 774

Outer blood–retinal barrier (oBRB) breakdown 58–67 clinical associations 61

age-related macular degeneration 62, 63f neovascular 62–4, 63f, 64f, 65f

central serous retinopathy 65 diabetes mellitus 64

drug toxicity 64 inflammation/infection 62 proliferative vitreoretinopathy 64 retinitis pigmentosa 66

role of growth factors 66

Outer limiting membrane (OLM) structure 812 Outer plexiform layer (OPL)

GABA release 228–9

melatonin receptor expression 502 synaptogenesis 393–4, 393f, 394f, 396 see also specific cell types

Outer segments (OS) of photoreceptors 412, 626, 648 definition 17, 648

membrane renewal 576, 815–18

Posterior hyaloid, definition 825

Posterior ischemic optic neuropathy (PION) 408 classification/definition 399, 408

clinical features 409 signs 409, 409f, 410f symptoms 409

diagnosis 408 incidence 408 management 410

arteritic 410 nonarteritic 410 surgical 410

pathogenesis 408 arteritic 408 nonarteritic 408 surgical 408

Postgestational age, definition 790, 791–2 Post-Golgi transport carriers (TCs)

definition 676 rhodopsin (RTCs) 677

Postnatal vasculogenesis, in choroidal neovascularization (CNV) 92 Postoperative endophthalmitis 375

Potassium (K+) channels circadian rhythms 122 cone photoreceptors 158–9

molluskan ciliary photoreceptors 442–3, 445 rod photoreceptors 821

Pou4f/Brn3, retinal ganglion cells activation by Atoh7/Ath5 237, 237f Islet1 and 238

regulatory role 238 POU-domain transcription factors

definition 235

see also Pou4f/Brn3 Precursor, definition 567

Pregnancy, diabetic retinopathy and 782 Preprotachykinin (PPT), retinal mRNA localization 488 Prestriate cortex (V2), acquired color blindness 137 Preterm birth, epidemiology 790

Primate(s)

bipolar cell morphology 453, 453f, 454f glaucoma models 38–9, 42

horizontal cell morphology 465, 465f, 466f Primordial retina, vasculature 542 Progenitor cells, definition 567, 745

Programmed cell death (PCD), definition 853 see also Apoptosis

Progressive cone dystrophies 136 Progressive restriction model

definition 745

retinal histogenesis 749, 749f

Proinflammatory cytokines, innate immune response and 379 Proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR) 786

classification 786t, 787–8 definition 781 fundoscopy 788f

Proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR) 64, 708–16 cells involved 709, 710f, 712f

ciliary body epithelial cells 711 fibroblastic cells 711

glial cells 710 macrophages 711 RGCs 711

RPE cells 710f, 711, 767–9, 770–1 T-cells 711

vascular elements 711

clinical classification 714, 803, 804t definition 708

incidence 713

intraretinal (iPVR) 708, 713 masses/tumors and 713, 713f, 714f

management 714 antiproliferative drugs 714 microsurgery 714 tamponade 714–15, 715f

membrane formation and retinal traction 708, 709f clinical significance 709

closed funnel formation 709, 709f extension into vitreous base 709 severity 708–9

membrane location 708 outcomes 715

pathogenesis/natural history 712 adhesive glycoproteins 713 cell loss 713

cell migration 713 cell proliferation 713

ECM build-up 711, 712, 712f, 713 IFNg 770–1

retinal detachment and 708, 712, 803, 804f, 804t, 809 time course 712–13

vitreous degeneration 712 risk factors 713

Prolonged depolarizing afterpotential (PDA) 242, 243f definition 240

Prosencephalon, definition 198 Prostheses (visual) 354–9

approaches 354

brain prosthetic devices 354 challenges 357

color vision and 358 future prospects 358 rationale 354

retinal prosthetic devices 355 clinical trials 356

optic nerve stimulation 355 power output and 355–6 retinal position and 355

retinal remodeling and 355, 357–8 variety/types 356

safety issues 358

Protan defects 134, 143, 144f Protanomalous trichromats 143, 144f Protanopia/protanopes 143, 144f

definition 134

Protein kinase A (PKA), retinal movement regulation 223 Protein kinase C (PKC)

definition 438

light adaptation in molluskan photoreceptors 441, 442f Protein misfolding 740

reduction 741 Proton(s)

definition 309

horizontal cell inhibitory feedback 312, 314 Proximal retina, definition 284

PS (pico-siemens), definition 438 Pseudoexotropia

definition 252

Wagner syndrome 261f

PSROP (peripheral severe retinopathy of prematurity) 790, 796 Psychophysical assessment, vision 163, 164f

Psychophysical studies, multiple rod pathways and 25 Ptf1a, retinal histogenesis 750–1

Pulsatile ocular blood flow, measurement 36 Punctum-plug occlusion

Pupil, light level and 559f, 563 Pupillary light reflex (PLR) 326

Q

Quantum bump definition 416

Drosophila phototransduction 243f, 250–1 Limulus phototransduction 617–18

Quantum efficiency, definition 631 Quantum units, definition 96 Quiescence, definition 753

R

Rab6, membrane trafficking and 678 Rab8, membrane trafficking and 678–9 Rab11, membrane trafficking and 678 Rabbit models

glaucoma 42

in vitro optophysiology 531–2, 532f Rab GTPase

definition 726, 847 functional roles 678

light-independent retinal degeneration and 732 membrane trafficking and

mutation effects 679

Rab6 678

Rab8 678–9

Rab11 678

rhodopsin targeting/trafficking 678, 682f SNARE interactions 679

Radial peripapillary capillaries (RPCs) 656, 657f Radiant power, definition 96 Radioimmunoassays, retinal neuropeptides 487 RALBP (retinal-binding protein) 585 Randomized controlled clinical trials (RCTs)

definition 426

macular edema treatments 434 Ranibizumab therapy

AMD 271, 834

choroidal neovascularization 92–3 macular edema 82

RANTES, secretion 767

Ras, circadian regulation of CNGCs 120 Rat, glaucoma models 39, 736

Rax 213

structural domains 213, 213f Rayleigh scattering 669–70, 669f

definition 668 RDS, definition 847

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) apoptosis role 739, 739f

mitochondrial dysfunction and 739, 739f Readily releasable pool, definition 661 Receptive field(s) (RFs)

definition 290, 301, 309 Recessive optic atrophy 335 Recoverin (S-modulin) 629–30

definition 412

light adaptation in rods 600

light-driven translocation in photoreceptors 412, 413f, 614–15 active transport vs. diffusion 413–14

possible functions 413 Red–green color defects

acquired

optic neuritis and 137 RP and 136

definition 140

deutan defects 134, 143–4, 144f inherited 143

classification 143, 144f epidemiology 143 inheritance 143

L/M gene deletion/inactivation 143 structural basis 144, 145f

perceptual consequences 143–4, 145f protan defects 134, 143, 144f

tritan defects vs. 145–6

Refractive errors, retinitis pigmentosa 690 Refractory period

definition 819

rod phototransduction 822

Refsum disease, retinitis pigmentosa and 705 Regression analysis, perimetry 556

Regulator of G protein signaling 5 (RGS5) 549–50 Regulator of G-protein signaling 9 (RGS9)

cone inactivation 607, 628 definition 412, 605, 610

light-driven transducin translocation and 414

Relative afferent pupillary defect, ischemic vs. nonischemic CRVO 79, 79t Reprogramming

definition 360

retinal remodeling 362 Research models 736 Resolution acuity 1, 2f

measurement 1, 2f see also Visual acuity

Resolution limit, definition 163 Retina

anatomy/structure 470, 648 cell types 276

clock hour delineations 791, 793f goldfish 106, 106f

membranes 708 vertebrate 105–6 cone distributions 101

definition 212, 830

drug delivery, BRB permeability and 49

evolutionary perspectives amphibians 847–8

pineal gland relationship 501 flat mounts 791, 793f

flow of visual information 470 neurochemistry 228–34, 487

glutamate pathways 278, 503 melatonin synthesis 500

trauma vs. RP 692–3 visual acuity across 4, 4f

Retina Implant AG, clinical trials 356 Retinal adaptation 105–6, 290, 318, 325–32

definitions 325

divergent rod/cone systems and 326, 841 horizontal cells and 315f

DA and 315

dark vs. light adaptation 314–15 NO and 315

uncoupling via all-trans-retinoic acid 315

Limulus 622 study methods

dichoptic stimulation protocols 325 ERG 325

periodic test stimuli 327–8 probe-flash paradigm 327

types/forms 325

chromatic adaptation 330, 330f contrast adaptation 329, 329f

Retinal angiomatous proliferation (RAP) 93, 94, 94f Retinal-binding protein (RALBP) 585

Retinal cannabinoids 717–25 anatomy 719

biochemical assay 719

metabolizing enzyme distribution/localization 720, 721t receptor distribution/localization 719, 721t

development and 724 functional role/physiology 720

bipolar cells and 719–20, 721 RGCs and 721

transmitter release and 720 neuroprotection and 724

Retinal cannabinoids, photoreceptor modulation 721 2-AG release from bipolar cells

voltage-dependent 723

voltage-independent (mGluR1a-mediated) 723 presynaptic suppression role 724

voltage-gated currents and 721

2-AG release from bipolar cells 723 retrograde cone responses 722–3, 722f rod vs. cone responses 721–2

WIN 55,212-2 effects on cone light response 723f, 724 Retinal circadian clock

circadian retinal responses 106 dopamine role 108

fly compound eye and 127–9 goldfish as model organism 106

illumination variation and compensation 105–6 rhythms associated 108

Retinal circadian clock, rod–cone regulation 105–11 circadian clock pathway 109, 110f

DA/melatonin control 109–10 retinal adaptation vs. 110

clock vs. other retinal responses 108 conductance changes and 108, 109f dopamine release and 108–9

evidence against ambient/background light effects 109 day/night differences in outer retina responses 107, 107f

cones and cone horizontal cells 106f, 107, 107f dopamine receptors and dopamine role 108–9 evidence for electrical coupling and 107

functional implications of 110 photoreceptor survival and 111 scotopic vs. photopic vision effects 105 synaptic switch 111

goldfish model 106, 106f

rod/cone pathways and 106, 106f

mammalian clock and control of rod–cone coupling 109 Retinal circuitry 22–4, 309

brain pathways 292–3

cone postreceptoral circuitry 22–4 signaling pathway 23f

definition 22

Retinal circuitry (continued) evolutionary aspects 22 future studie 397–8

lateral communication networks 24 amacrine cells 24–5

horizontal cells 24 RGCs 25

rod pathways 25, 26f organization 389, 390f rewiring 363

rod postreceptoral circuitry 22, 25, 26f electrophysiological studies 25–6 primary pathway 26, 26f psychophysical studies 25

secondary pathway 26–7, 26f tertiary pathway 26f, 27

Retinal circuitry, development 389–98 lateral circuit assembly 395

inner retina (amacrine cells) 390f, 395 outer retina (horizontal cells) 390f, 396 spontaneous/light-evoked activity 396, 397f

synaptic laminae 389 time-line 390f

vertical pathway assembly 389 bipolar cells 392, 392f photoreceptors 393

retinal ganglion cells 391, 391f

vertical pathway synaptogenesis 393, 393f, 394f, 395f Retinal degenerative diseases (RDDs)

definition 354

imaging, adaptive optics (AO) 14f, 15, 15f Retinaldehyde (retinal)

in visual cycle 649f

clearance of all-trans-RAL from OS disks 648 oxidation of 11-cis-ROL to 11-cis-RAL 651 reduction to all-trans-ROL 649

regeneration of visual pigment from 11-cis-RAL 651 all-trans-Retinaldehyde (all-trans-RAL) 648, 649f

clearance from OS disks 648 conversion to 11-cis-RAL 648

production from 11-cis-RAL 641, 642f, 648 reduction to all-trans-retinol 649

11-cis-Retinaldehyde (11-cis-RAL) 17, 648 competition between rods and cones for 19 cone opsins and 626

noncovalent interactions 629

covalent attachment to rhodopsin via Schiff base 638, 640–1, 640f visual cycle and 17, 648, 649f

conversion of all-trans-retinaldehyde to 648 interaction with apo-opsin 651

photoisomerization to all-trans-retinaldehyde 641, 642f, 648 synthesis from 11-cis-ROL 651

Retinal densitometry, definition 7 Retinal detachment

definition 790 PVR and 708, 712

retinopathy of prematurity and 792, 794f Stickler syndrome and 253, 256f treatment, ROP and 792

Retinal development assessment 791–2 dopamine role 498 oxygen role 795

Retinal dialyses 801, 803, 803f conservative management 804 laser demarcation 805

Retinal dystrophy definition 685, 699

Retinal eccentricity, chromatic function and 102 Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs)

apoptosis 386, 734–44 in glaucoma 734

detection 734–5 axons

degeneration in mouse glaucoma model (DBA/2J) 386, 387f elevated IOP-induced damage 382, 386

cell fate specification 750–1 circuitry 322

bipolar inputs 290–1, 319 dendritic stratification 391, 391f emergence of function 396, 397f lateral networks 25

classification/types 25, 290, 301 numbers 301

object motion sensitive 305–6 ON–OFF-cells 301, 305

clomeleon-labeled 454 definition 105, 381, 734 development 235–9

Islet1 role 238

Pou4f2/Brn3b role 237–8, 237f dynamic range and

cone pathways and 846

rod bipolar cell pathway and 844 functional roles 25

imaging, adaptive optics 12f, 13f, 14 invertebrates 240

neuroprotection 734–44

reduction of misfolded proteins 741 optic neuritis 540

retinal disease and, proliferative vitreoretinopathy and 711 soma 386

Retinal ganglion cells, information processing 301–8 action potentials and 301

amacrine cells and 301, 306 bipolar cells and 301, 306 principles 301

spatial processing 302

center-surround receptive fields 302, 303f contrast sensitivity and 290

one cell–one pixel analogy 302–4 synchronous activity and 302–4 tiling and 302, 303f

as spatiotemporal filters 305, 305f

as specific feature detectors 305, 305f approach-sensitivity/looming and 305–6, 307 object motion sensitivity 306–7, 306 saccadic suppression and 307

stimulus features triggering RGC activity 305 temporal processing 301

cell-type-specific responses 301, 302f contrast sensitivity and 291 stratification and 301

ON vs. OFF responses to light 301, 302f Retinal ganglion cells, neurochemistry

acetylcholine, directional selectivity 296, 299 dopamine and 497

endocannabinoids and 721 GABA receptors 233 neuropeptides and 490

Retinal gap junctions amacrine cells 447, 449–50 cone photoreceptors 159 rod photoreceptors 821

Retinal glial cells

cell fate specification 750, 751f retinal remodeling and 360 scar formation 372, 372f

proliferative vitreoretinopathy 710, 710f Retinal glutamate receptors

amacrine cells 278 cone bipolar cells 23–4

Retinal G-protein receptor (RGR) 208, 651 functions 208

human 208 Retinal growth

persistent neurogenesis in zebrafish 865, 867f, 870f, 871 Retinal guanylyl cyclase (RetGC) 606

cone inactivation and cGMP synthesis 627, 628 definition 605, 610

light adaptation 630 regulation 612–14

rod inactivation and cGMP synthesis 612 vertebrate isoforms 614

Retinal hemorrhage, in CRVO 80, 80f, 83f Retinal histogenesis 169–70, 170f, 745–52

birthdating 745

early vs. late cohorts 745, 746f procedure 745

cell autonomous vs. nonautonomous control 748 conflicting results 749

default progenitor state and 748 feedback density regulation and 749 inductive interactions and 748–9