Ординатура / Офтальмология / Английские материалы / The Retina and its Disorders_Besharse, Bok_2011

Direction-selective ganglion cells (DSGCs) (continued) cooperative integration and 299

definition 305, 318

inhibitory control (GABAergic) 296, 298, 305 geometrically asymmetrical inhibition 296–7, 306 presynaptic (bipolar cell) inhibition 306 suppression during preferred movements 306

morphology 296–7, 297f

null direction vs. preferred direction 295, 296f, 305 physiological functions/types 295

ON–OFF type 295, 304–5 stratification and 296–7 ON type 295, 304–5

Disinhibition, definition 228

Disk membranes, photoreceptors 812f renewal 815–18

catabolism 817–18, 817f in cones 815–16, 816f disk formation 817

opsin transport 816–17, 816f in rods 815, 816f

see also Photoreceptor(s) Distal retina, definition 284 Diurnal rhythm, definition 500

see also Circadian rhythm(s)

Docosahexanoic acid (DHA), retinitis pigmentosa treatment 696 Dog models, glaucoma 42

Dominant-negative, definition 753 Dominant-negative effect 252 Dominant optic atrophy (DOA) 335

clinical features 335, 336f epidemiology 335 genetics 335

gene identification 335 hearing loss and 335 histological features 335 Donder’s curve, definition 333

Dopamine/dopaminergic neurons 494–9 definition 105

melatonin colocalization 495, 502, 503 neuronal activity regulation 494

circadian control 495

dopamine synthesis/metabolism and 494 light responses 494

retina/phototransduction role 451, 494, 496 amacrine cells and 279, 497

bipolar cells and 497 circadian regulation and 108–9

circadian regulation of CNGCs in photoreceptors 120 developmental 498

horizontal cell modulation 315, 496 Mu¨ller cells and 497 neuromodulatory functions 473 nonphotopic vision 497, 498 photopic vision 498 photoreceptors and 496 projections 494, 495f

retinomotor movement regulation 223, 225–6 RGCs and 497

RPE and 496 synthesis/metabolism 494

Dopamine receptors 495 as GPCRs 495–6

retinal expression 496, 496t amacrine cells 497 bipolar cells 497

circadian regulation and 108 ganglion cells 497 horizontal cells 496–7 Mu¨ller cells 497 photoreceptor cells 496 RPE 496

Dot-blot hemorrhages, in diabetic retinopathy 784f, 785 Double-strand break (DSB) mutagenesis, zebrafish 855–6 Drivers, visual acuity requirement 4

Drosophila melanogaster

circadian (clock) genes/proteins 126–7, 128f developmental control genes 727

human similarities 729 behavior 728

functionally equivalent genes 727

metabolic/signaling pathways 727–8 phototransduction cascade 730

importance as a model organism 727–8, 732–3 transgenic flies 729

Drosophila models, glaucoma 42

Drosophila models of retinal degeneration 726–33, 854 ABC-type multidrug transporter and 727 historical aspects 727

large scale mutagenesis screens and 728–9, 730 mechanisms of degeneration 731

dual role proteins 732 light-dependent degeneration 731 light-independent degeneration 731

other models vs. 727 retinitis pigmentosa 730 visual assessment

DPP 730

ERG analysis 728–9, 730

Drosophila phototransduction 242, 617–18, 622, 623, 729–30 early studies 240

genetic screens for mutants defective in phototransduction proteins 242, 243f

Gq protein 244

light-dependent phospholipase C activation 245, 246f ina mutants 242, 243f

metarhodopsin inactivation 242, 244f nina mutants 242, 243f

phosphoinositide (PI) pathway 246f, 248, 248f photochemical cycle 242, 244f

quantum bumps 243f, 250–1 Drosophila visual system 125f, 729, 854

circadian regulation

clock genes/proteins 126–7 larval 132

locomotor activity relationship 130–1 second-order lamina neurons/glia 130, 130f serotonin role 131

tetrad synapses and 126f, 129 compound eyes 729, 729f, 730f

morphology 241f developmental gene expression 727 larval 132

ocelli 124, 729

ommatidia 124, 241f, 729, 729f optic lobe 124, 125f, 126f

photoreceptors 124, 240, 241f, 729, 730f opsins 729

single photon sensitivity 250 tetrad synapses 125, 126f, 129

spontaneous mutants 728f, 854 UV sensitive opsin 209–10

Drug-induced color blindness 138 Drug-induced retinopathies

RP vs. 693

Xenopus laevis models of retinal disease 851 Drug toxicity, blood–retinal barrier and 64

Drug transport, across blood–retinal barrier (BRB) 49 Drusen 758, 759f

classification 831 definition 270, 830

formation/composition 271, 832 fundoscopy 831f

histology 832f

retinitis pigmentosa 699, 700f

Dry age-related macular degeneration 831, 832 acquired color blindness 136

choroidal vasculature and 182 fundoscopy 831f

Duplicity theory 811 Dyad

bipolar cell synapses 457f, 458 definition 452

Dynamic range of vision 105, 290, 318, 325, 589, 596, 841–6 definition 841

divergent rod/cone systems and 105–6 evolution 841

extending, light adaptation and 598 higher level adaptation 325 intrinsic retinal processes 105–6 pupillary responses 326, 841

Dynamic visual acuity 5

Dynein definition 219

retinomotor movement 221 Dyschromatopsia, definition 333

E

E2F

in cell cycle regulation 171, 171f retinal development role 175

Early patterning 200 neural retina 201f optic cup 201f, 203

optic vesicle 201–2, 201f retinal pigment epithelium 201f transcription factors 199f, 200–1

Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) 428, 785–6 definition 781

macula edema treatment 432–4, 435f

Early Treatment for Retinopathy of Prematurity (ETROP) study 792 EAU see Experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU)

Eccentric cell definition 416

Limulus lateral eyes 416–17

Eccentricity, retinal, chromatic function and 102 Ectopia lentis, Marfan syndrome 256–7, 259f Ectopic eye, definition 212

Electrical conductance, definition 105 Electrical coupling

amacrine cells 447 dopamine and 498

dopaminergic (IPC) modulation 473–4 Electron microscopes, definition 811, 815

Electron microscopy, blood–retinal barrier (BRB) assessment 55 Electroretinogram (ERG), definition 240

Electroretinography 705–6 b-wave, definition 661

cone-isolated responses 706, 706f definition 75, 124, 853

diurnal variation in flies 128–9 Drosophila models of eye disease 728–9 full-field 705

historical aspects 848

ischemic vs. nonischemic CRVO 79, 79t mixed rod–cone responses 706 multiple rod pathways and 25–7 neuropeptides 482

retinal adaptation studies 325 rod-isolated responses 706 RP assessment 691, 705

classification and 692, 693f, 694f, 695f utility 691–2

zebrafish models of retinal disease 856 ELISA

definition 761 RPE analysis 762

Ellipsoid definition 219

structure 811–12, 812f Embryogenesis, definition 541

Emmetropia, dopamine role in establishing 498 Endocannabinoids 717

definition 228, 717 inactivation/metabolism 717, 718f retinal enzymes 720, 721t structures 718f

synthesis/release 717 Endocytosis, definition 374, 819 Endophthalmitis, definition 374

Endostatin, CNV pathogenesis role 91 Endothelin(s), retinal vasoconstriction role 34 Enhanced S-cone dystrophy 258, 261 ENSLI amacrine cells

circadian rhythms and somatostatin 121 definition 118

Entrainment (circadian), definition 105, 124 Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)

definition 761 RPE analysis 762

Eomes 238

Ephaptic feedback theory 161 Ephaptic transmission

definition 156, 309, 461 horizontal cell–photoreceptor 314

Eph receptor(s)

proangiogenic activity 546, 547f Ephrins, proangiogenic activity 546, 547f

Epidermal growth factor (EGF) family goblet cells and inhibition of rod development 268–9

Epigenetic, definition 836

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), GCA and A-AION 405–6, 408f Erythropoietin (Epo)

angiogenic activity 548 retinopathy of prematurity and 798

Ethambutol, acquired color blindness 138–9 Ethical issues, stem/progenitor cell therapy 368 ETROP study 792

Eumetazoa, definition 205

Evans blue assay, blood–retinal barrier (BRB) assessment 54–5

e-vector 668 definition 668

Evolution

amphibian retina 847–8 butterflies 148, 149f, 152f, 153f dynamic range of vision and 841

rod bipolar pathway 842 horizontal cell morphology and 467–8

intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells 115 melatonin, retinal synthesis 501

photoreceptors 22 rods 22, 841 retina

circuitry 22

pineal gland relationship 501 Excitation, definition 301 Excitotoxicity, definition 734

Excitotoxicity-induced apoptosis, in glaucoma 737, 738f Extracellular matrix (ECM)

definition 346

degradation, apoptosis and 742 injury-induced angiogenesis 350, 351f

proliferative vitreoretinopathy and 711, 712f, 713 retinal cell therapy/transplantation barrier 371

glial scarring and 372, 372f myelin and 372

Extrastriate cortex (V4), acquired color blindness and injury 137 Extrinsic factor, definition 684, 698, 836

Eye(s), cannabinoid effects on 719 Eye development

Bruch’s membrane 755 dopamine role 498

Drosophila 727 early 198–204, 199f

Limulus visual system 418

retinal pigment epithelium (RPE)–choroid interactions during 756 Xenopus models 851

zebrafish 864, 864f Eye field, definition 212

Eye-field transcription factors (EFTFs) 212–18 discovery 212

homologs, names/null phenotypes 213t, 214–15 mutations, eye abnormalities associated with 215–16 role in normal eye development 214, 215f

coordinated expression and 216, 217f

effects of environmental toxins/genetic mutations on 214, 215f self-sustaining feedback network 216, 217f

structural features 212, 213f

Eyelashes as part of the passive defense system 374 eyeless gene/protein 727

Eyelids(s) as part of the passive defense system 374

F

Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy (FEVR) 259, 261f Fas, pathogen clearance 379

FDT (frequency-doubling technology) perimeter 554 Feedback

basic principles 279, 279f definition 276

Feedback synapse definition 284

Feed forward, definition 276 Fenestrae

choriocapillaris 182 definition 179

Fenestration(s), definition 28, 51, 753

FEVR (familial exudative vitreoretinopathy) 259, 261f Fibrinolytic therapy, CRVO 83

Fibroblast(s), proliferative vitreoretinopathy and 710f, 711 Fibroblast growth factor(s) (FGFs)

Fibronectin(s), proliferative vitreoretinopathy and 713 Fibrous tissue envelope (FTE) 75–6, 76f

Filter, definition 290 Filtering pigments butterfly 153–4 definition 148

First-order kernel, definition 506 Fish, polarization sensitivity 672 Flap tears 801, 802, 802f

Flicker adaptation 329

Flicker–fusion frequency, rapid photocurrent recovery 593 Flicker perception 563, 564f, 565f

multiple rod pathways and 25 Flippases, definition 726

Floaters, rhegmatogenous retinal detachment and 801–2 Fluocinolone, intravitreal, macular edema treatment 82 Fluorescein fundus angiography

blood–retinal barrier (BRB) 48, 48f, 55 choroidal neovascularization (CNV) 87, 89f CRVO, ischemic vs. nonischemic 77f, 78–9, 78f definition 75, 653

macular edema 428–30, 429f cystoid 428

diabetic 428

ocular blood flow measurement 35 RPE barrier assessment 61, 61f, 62f 5-Fluorouracil, PVR management 714

Fly circadian system(s) 126–7

Drosophila clock genes/proteins 126–7, 128f light entrainment 126

light input 127 other species 127

Fly visual system(s) 124–5 ocelli 124, 729

optic lobe and optic neuropil 124, 125f cartridges 124–5

photoreceptors 124, 125, 126f retinal functions 124–5 ultraviolet detection 209–10

Fly visual system, circadian rhythms 124–33 circadian circuitry 132

crustaceans vs 127–8

first visual neuropil (lamina) 129–30 driving factors 129

photoreceptor terminal organelles 131 second-order neurons/glia plasticity 130–1, 130f synaptic contact plasticity 129

functional roles 132–3 larval visual system 132

locomotor activity relationship 130–1, 132–3 neurotransmitter regulation 131

FMRFamide 131 GABA 131 histamine 131 PDF 131 serotonin 131

predictive nature 133

retina of compound eye 127–9 ERG patterns and 128–9 gene expression and 129

photoreceptors as peripheral clocks 129 photoreceptor size 127–8

pigment changes 128–9 stress and 132–3

FMRFamide, fly circadian plasticity and 131 Focal adhesions, definition 58 Forced-choice paradigms, definition 163

Four-alternative forced-choice (4AFC) detection task 163, 164f

Fourier analysis, definition 163

Fovea, definition 426

Foveal avascular zone (FAZ), definition 426 Foveal region, capillary bed 657, 657f Foveola 427

definition 426

FOXN4, amacrine cell specification and 750 Frequency-doubling technology (FDT) perimeter 554 Friedreich’s ataxia

optic neuropathy 336 retinitis pigmentosa and 704

Full-field electroretinography 705 Fundamental spectral sensitivities, definition 96 Fundus albipunctata 702, 703f

Fundus examination/fundoscopy AMD 831f

ischemic vs. nonischemic CRVO 78f, 79 NPDR 784f

PDR 788f

retinal injury/neovascularization 347f mouse 348f

G

GABA

fly circadian plasticity and 131

as major inhibitory transmitter 228 retinal 228–34, 229t

amacrine cells 233, 278, 322, 448–9 cellular signaling 479, 482f co-localization with neuropeptides 485 cone negative feedback and 161 horizontal cells 228–9, 232, 312, 313 lateral inhibition role 228

metabolism 230f GABAA receptors 231–2 amacrine cells 233

benzodiazepine binding 231–2 bipolar cells 233

horizontal cells 232 Mu¨ller cells 234

neuropeptide co-localization and 490 photoreceptors 232

RGCs 233

GABAB receptors 231–2 amacrine cells 233

functional role in light response 233 RGCs 233

GABAC receptors 231–2 bipolar cells 233 horizontal cells 232 photoreceptors 232 salamander RGCs 233

GABA receptors 228, 231 classes 231–2

retina 228–34, 229t, 230f amacrine cells and 233, 278–9 bipolar cells 233, 289, 313 horizontal cells 232

Mu¨ller cells 234

photoreceptor terminals 232, 313–14 RGCs and 233

species differences 232–3 zinc ions and 232–3

GABA transporters 228

plasma membrane (GATs) 228, 230 functional role 231

reverse operation 231 subtypes 230

retina 229t, 230f bipolar cells 231 functional role 231 GATs 230

horizontal cells 228–9, 231 Mu¨ller cells 230

neuronal localization 230 RPE 231

VIAAT 228 vesicular (VIAAT) 228

Gabors 164–5, 165f definition 163

Gadolinium, definition 536 GAF domains

definition 853

zebrafish pde6 mutants 861, 861f Gain

control definition 309

reduction of 845 definition 276, 325

Ganglion cell layer (GCL), definition 235 Gap junctions 24

definition 105, 309, 461, 853 GAT-1 230

retinal expression 229t, 230f amacrine cells 230

GAT-2 230, retinal expression 229t, 230f GAT-3 230

retinal expression 229t, 230f Mu¨ller cells 230

GDP (guanosine diphosphate), rod phototransduction and 634 Gene co-option

definition 205, 210 opsin evolution 210

Gene duplication

butterfly opsins 151–2, 152f, 154 co-duplication

definition 205, 210 opsin evolution 210

crystallin evolution definition 148 opsin evolution 209

Gene homology, definition 212 Gene therapy

primary 364

retinal disorders and

retinal remodeling and 364, 365 retinitis pigmentosa 696

secondary 365 Genetic factors/genetics

retinal regeneration 869 retinopathy of prematurity 795

Genetic recombination

cone photopigment genes 141 Genuine S-cones, definition 452

Geographic atrophy (end-stage dry age-related macular degeneration) 831–2 fundoscopy 831f

Giant cell arteritis (GCA) clinical features 405

laboratory investigations 405, 408f signs 405

symptoms 405 systemic 405

definition 399

ischemic optic neuropathy 405 management 406

steroid therapy and 407 timing and outcome 407

Glaucoma 381

acquired color blindness 136 Alzheimer’s disease and 740

compartmentalized self-destruct pathways in 386 definition 75, 734

diagnosis 734

drug therapy/prevention 735 early detection 381–2

elevated intraocular pressure as risk factor 381 Xenopus laevis model 849

Glaucoma Hemifield Test (GHT) 556 Glaucoma models 736

animal/in vivo 38–43, 736 nonmammalian 42 selection criteria 38

neuroprotective agents 743, 743t in vitro 736

Glial cells definition 381

Drosophila visual system, circadian regulation 130, 130f optic nerve head, response to elevated intraocular pressure

(IOP) 382

proliferative vitreoretinopathy and 710

Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), definition 708

Glial–neuronal interactions, apoptosis and 741, 741f Glial scar/gliosis

proliferative vitreoretinopathy 709

retinal cell therapy/transplantation barrie 372–3, 372f Glial seal, definition 360

Global indices, perimetry 555 Glutamate excitotoxicity 737 Glutamate/glutamatergic signaling

retina

BC–amacrine synapses, 278 melatonin effects 503

Glycemic control, DR risk factor 782, 782f, 783f Glycine/glycinergic transmission

amacrine cells 278, 322, 448–9 melatonin effects 503

Glycoconjugates, definition 811

Goldfish retina (rod/cone pathways) 106, 106f circadian regulation 106

mammalian retina vs. 107 Goldmann–Favre syndrome 258, 261

Goldmann perimeter, ischemic vs. nonischemic CRVO 79 Golgi apparatus, definition 676

Go opsins 208 G-protein(s)

definition 205, 240, 637 Go 205, 208

Gq 205, 208

Drosophila 244

light-dependent phospholipase C activation 245, 246f squid 585

Gs 205, 206–8 Gt 205, 208

molluskan ciliary photoreceptors 443–4 rhodopsin signaling and 600, 612, 644

G-protein-coupled receptor(s) (GPCRs) definition 205, 477, 637

dopamine receptors 495–6 melatonin receptors 500, 501 neuropeptide receptors as 487, 491 photopigments as 648

type II opsins 206

G-protein-coupled receptor kinase(s) (GRKs) definition 605

opsin inactivation and 606 G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 1 (GRK1)

cone opsins and 606 definition 582, 610, 637 GRK7 vs. 627

rhodopsin inactivation and 611, 644, 644f, 645, 645f, 648 light adaptation and 601

light damage and 339–40 multiple sites 612

squid (SQRK) 584f, 586, 588 G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 7 (GRK7)

cone inactivation and 606, 627 GRK1 vs. 627

Green fluorescent protein (GFP), definition 124 Growth factors, RPE and

barrier breakdown 66 secretion 757, 758f

GTP (guanosine triphosphate), rod phototransduction and 634 Guanylyl (guanylate) cyclase (GC)

definition 438

in intraflagellar transport (retinal GC1) 580–1 in molluskan ciliary photoreceptors 444

Guanylyl cyclase activating protein (GCAP) cone phototransduction and 605–6, 607 definition 605, 610

rod phototransduction and 612–14 light adaptation and 600, 601, 601f

Gyrate atrophy, retinitis pigmentosa 702, 703f

H

Hair cells, ribbon synapses 662

Haller’s layer 30

Haploinsufficiency, definition 252

Head injury, acquired color blindness 137

Hearing loss, dominant optic atrophy and 335

Heavy metals, acquired color blindness 139

Immunotherapy, AMD 271, 834

Inactivation no afterpotential D (INAD) protein 249 discovery 249

signaling complex 249, 250f

Incontinentia pigmenti (Bloch–Schulzberg syndrome), retinitis pigmentosa and 704

Increment threshold, light adaptation and 326, 326f Individual variations, cone numbers 101

Indocyanine green (ICG), angiography, choroidal neovascularization (CNV) 87, 89f

Induced pluripotent stem cells 368, 369f

Infection, role in blood–retinal barrier (BRB) breakdown 62 RP differential diagnosis 693, 695f Inflammation/inflammatory response

AMD 271, 272, 341, 346–8

blood–retinal barrier (BRB) breakdown role 52, 62 CNV pathogenesis role 91

definition 338

innate immunity and 374, 379 light damage 342

Inhibition, definition 301

Inhibitory postsynaptic current (IPSC) bipolar cell GABA receptors and 233 definition 228

Inion, definition 506 Ink4

in cell cycle regulation 171, 171f retinal development role 172f, 174

Innate immunity 374–5

adaptive immunity relationship, 379 AMD and 272

aqueous humor and inhibition 379 components/principles 374 definition 270

inflammation and 374, 379 primary function 379

role in CNV pathogenesis 91 as two-tiered system 374

Innate immunity, active mechanisms 377 adaptive immunity and 379

immune privilege and 379

pathogen elimination and immune response 379 initiation/amplification 379

pathogen clearance 379 proinflammatory cytokines 379

pattern recognition receptors see Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) Innate immunity, passive mechanisms 374

anatomical/physical barriers 374, 375f corneal epithelium 375 eyelids/lashes 374

posterior lens capsule 375 RPE 375

tear film 374, 376f

Inner blood–retinal barrier (iBRB) 44, 45, 45f, 58, 659, 773 astrocytes 46

definition 44, 58 Mu¨ller cells 46 pericytes 46 polarity 47

retinal endothelial cells 45, 46f transport mechanisms 45–6, 46f

retinal endothelial tight junctions 44–5, 46 Inner nuclear layer (INL)

IPCs 470

melatonin receptor expression 502 persistent neurogenesis 865, 867f

Inner plexiform layer (IPL) amacrine cells 447

bipolar cells see Bipolar cells melatonin receptor expression 502 organization 321–2, 322f sublamina 470

synaptogenesis 393–4, 393f, 394f, 395 Inner segments of photoreceptors

organization 811–14 cilia 812f, 813–14, 814f proteins 812–13

structure 811, 812f, 813f Inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3)

definition 438

light protection mechanisms and 343

Insects

color vision 209–10 evolution

butterflies 148, 149f, 152f, 153f opsins 150

polarization sensitivity 671–2, 672f behavioral responses 673, 674 distinguishing from color vision 671–2

ultraviolet and 210

in situ hybridization (ISH), definition 487 Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), definition 781

Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), retinopathy of prematurity and 798 Insulin-like growth factor-1 binding protein 3 (IGF-1BP3),

retinopathy of prematurity and 798

Insulin receptor signaling, light protection role 343 Integrin(s), proangiogenic activity 548

Interferon g (IFNg)

inflammatory disease pathogenesis 770–1 autoimmune uveitis and 770–1

PVR 770–1

regulation/signaling pathways 770–1 RPE effects 770

CFTR and 770–1 proliferation/migration and 769–70 regulation/signaling pathways 770–1

Interferon-inducible protein 10 (IP-10), RPE secretion 767 Interferon-inducible T-cell a-chemoattractant (I-Tac), RPE

secretion 767

Interkinetic nuclear migration (INM) 174f cell birth and 176, 176f

definition 169 Interleukin-1b (IL-1b)

blood–retinal barrier (BRB) breakdown and 54 Internal limiting membrane (ILM), definition 825 Interneurons, dopaminergic modulation 473 Interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein (IRBP) 17,

628–9, 649–50

alternative visual cycle and 20 functional role 20–1

Interplexiform cells (IPCs) 451, 470–6 definition 494

dopamine secretion 470

basal release under dark conditions 475 light conditions inducing 474

functional roles/physiology 470, 473 chemical transmission modification 474 DA reconfiguration of retinal circuits 473 electrical coupling and 473–4 heterogeneity 474

intraretinal feedback 470, 471f, 473–4

novel and conventional light-driven pathways 474 ON-sustained cells 474–5

ON-transient cells 474–5 retinal circadian clock and 475

morphology 470, 472f, 473f axon-like processes 472 dendrites 471 distribution 471 homogeneity 474

soma 471

retinal degeneration and 475 diabetic retinopathy 475 Parkinson’s disease 475 retinal clock and 475

synaptic input 472, 473f amacrine cells 473 bipolar cells 473 centrifugal fibers 473 ipRGCs 473

Intraflagellar transport (IFT) definition 575 photoreceptors 578, 580f

cargo 580

kinesin KIF17 579 rod outer segment 677 Intraocular pressure (IOP) cannabinoid effects 719

as glaucoma risk factor 381

Intraretinal cysts, chronic rhegmatogenous retinal detachment 803

Intraretinal layers, optical coherence tomography 528, 530f Intraretinal microvascular abnormalities (IRMA) 785

definition 781

Intraretinal proliferative vitreoretinopathy (iPVR) 708, 713 masses/tumors and 713, 713f, 714f

Intravitreous neovascularization avascular retina and 796–7 definition 790

Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) 114 central projections 115

definition 112 dopamine role 497

Drosophila phototransduction similarity 730 evolution 115

functions 115

circadian oscillations and 116 classical photoreceptors and 116 genetic mouse models 115–16, 116f

interplexiform cell connections 473, 473f morphology 114–15

Intrinsic factor, definition 684, 698, 836 Invagination

cone photoreceptors 157f, 158 definition 156, 819

rod photoreceptor(s) 820f, 821 Inverse retinitis pigmentosa 700 Invert, definition 156 Invertebrate phototransduction

studies early 240

genetic 240–51

vertebrate phototransduction vs. 240 Iodopsin, circadian rhythms 73–4

Ion channels

cone cells 158–9 definition 477 rod cells 821

Ionotropic receptors definition 228

IP-10, RPE secretion 767 Iris, definition 212

Iron deposition, AMD and 767 Irvine–Gass syndrome 432, 435

definition 426 Ischemia

definition 541 retinal 346–8

retinopathy, VEGF and diabetic retinopathy 185 Ischemic optic neuropathy (ION) 399–411

as acute optic nerve disorder 399 arteritic vs. nonarteritic 407 blood supply schematic 400f classification 399 classification/definition 399 incipient nonarteritic 405 nonarteritic vs. 407

posterior ION 408, 410 posterior ION 408, 410 surgical 408, 410

Islet1, in retinal ganglion cell development 238 Isoelectric focusing, definition 536

Isoform(s), definition 487 I-Tac, RPE secretion 767

J

Jak–STAT pathway IFNg signaling 770–1

secondary photoreceptor degeneration 840 Jansen syndrome 257–8

Joubert syndrome (cerebellooculorenal syndrome), retinitis pigmentosa and 704

Junctional adhesion molecules (JAMs), RPE inflammation and 771–2, 771f Juvenile X-linked retinoschisis, mfERG results 510, 514f

K

Kainate (KA) receptors, horizontal cells and 311

Kd (dissociation constant), definition 219

Kearns–Sayre syndrome CPEO 704

retinitis pigmentosa 704 Kinesins

definition 219, 575

intraflagellar transport (KIF17) 579, 580f opsin transport 817

retinomotor movement 220–1

in ribbon synapses (KIF3A) 663–4 Kinetic perimetry 551, 552f

definition 551

Kniest dysplasia 253, 258f, 260 Knobloch syndrome 256 Knock-out mouse

conditional, definition 567 definition 567

L

Lactate, RPE transport and 765, 766f Lactoferrin, innate immunity and 377 Lambda-max 208–9

definition 148, 206 Lamina cribrosa 180

definition 75, 381, 506 IOP-related stress/strain 382, 383f vascular supply 31, 33f

Lamina fusca 180, 181f Landolt C 1, 2f

Landolt club, definition 452

Laser demarcation, rhegmatogenous retinal detachment 804 RRD due to retinal holes/dialysis 805

RRD due to retinal tears 805 Laser Doppler flowmetry 36, 36f Laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV) 36

Laser-induced chorioretinal venous anastomosis, nonischemic CRVO 83

Laser-induced injury definition 346 neovascularization and 346–8

animal models 348 Laser speckle technique 36 Laser therapy

diabetic retinopathy 785–6, 787–8 macular edema 432–4, 434f

Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) 292–3 contrast sensitivity role 293 definition 354

layers/organization 293 prosthetic devices 354–5

Lateral inhibition definition 416 GABAergic 228

amacrine cells 322 Limulus lateral eye 417–18

L-cones 134, 140, 159

diffuse bipolar cell connections 455 L-opsins 209

photopigment genes 141, 142f blue-cone monochromacy and 146 red–green color defects and 143 variability and 141

S-cones vs. 145–6

species differences in horizontal cell selectivity 467 spectral sensitivity 141f

Leber’s congenital amaurosis (LCA) 649, 650, 687–9 definition 637

fundus appearance 689f gene therapy 364–5 rhodopsin mutations 645–6

Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) 333 clinical features 333–4

acute stage 334–5 clinical examination 335 fundus changes 334, 334f

genetics 333

homoplasmic vs. heteroplasmic mutations 334 mtDNA mutations 333–4

penetrance 334 pathophysiology 334

recovery 335 treatment 335

Lecithin:retinol acyl transferase (LRAT) 642, 650 knockout effects 646, 646f

LED (local edge detector) 318, 323–4, 324f Lens capsule, posterior, innate defense and 375 Lens development 198–9, 200f

Leukemia inhibitory factor, light damage, protection mechanism 343 Leukostasis, definition 51, 87

Lhx2 213

structural domains 213, 213f Light

l-max 206, 208–9

retinopathy of prematurity pathophysiology 799 visual vs. nonvisual responses 113

Light adaptation 290, 325, 326

benefits/adaptive nature 596 Ca2+ role

cone phototransduction and 607, 629 characteristics 326, 326f

definitions 326, 412, 589, 596, 624, 705 functional role 290, 598

contrast information and response kinetics 598 dynamic range extension 598, 598f

high-frequency linearity 327–8 mechanisms 328

human mutations/genetics and 329 multiplicative adaptation 328, 328f sites 329

subtractive adaptation 328 molluskan photoreceptors

ciliary 445, 446f microvillar 441, 442f

Naka–Rushton equation and 328, 328f saturation and 327f

avoidance of 598, 598f cones 327

rods 327, 596–7, 597f

Light adaptation, cone phototransduction 327, 329, 590, 624–5, 629 background illumination effects

desensitization/acceleration 590, 590f, 591f flashes on background procedure 590–1, 590f incremental responses 591, 591f

sensitivity and Weber’s law 591, 591f dynamic range and 590

intracellular Ca2+ and 607, 629 mechanisms 629–30 molecular basis 593, 594f

human model 594

reaction steps underlying rapid recovery 593, 594f saturation avoidance and 594

shut-off time constants and 593, 593t photobleaching and 327, 592, 594 rapid photocurrent recovery 592

flicker–fusion frequency and 593 human ERG studies 592, 592f shut-off reaction speed 593, 593t

Light adaptation, rod phototransduction 327, 327f, 329, 598 accelerated recovery 598, 598f

Ca2+-dependent mechanisms 598, 598f, 600 Ca2+-sensitive proteins 600, 601

channel reactivation 602

guanylyl cyclase activation and 601, 601f negative feedback loop 600

resensitization and saturation prevention 600 shortened R* lifetime 601

Ca2+-independent mechanisms 600, 602 cGMP turnover acceleration 602 pigment depletion 602

response compression 602 desensitization/acceleration 597f, 598, 598f rod adaptation pool 328–9

saturation 596–7, 597f

at high background intensities 598f, 600 prevention (range extension) 598, 598f, 600

slow changes 602

dominant time constant changes 602 Light damage 338–45

acute model 338–9, 339f chronic model 338–9, 340f genetic factors 339–40

injury mechanisms 340 apoptosis 341 inflammation 339f, 341 microarray studies 340–1 oxidative stress 341 rhodopsin role 338, 339 tissue remodeling 342

transcription factor expression 341, 342 protection mechanisms 342

antioxidant mechanism 344

as important area of research 343 LIF and 343

preconditioning effects 343 retinal plasticity 343 rhodopsin-activated 343 therapeutic potential 344

as retinal degeneration model 338, 342 Light-dependent ion channels, molluskan 445, 586

Light-driven protein translocation (photoreceptors) 412–15, 603, 614 active transport vs. diffusion 413

light-dependency of 412 neuroprotection and 413 possible functional roles 413 protein-specific mechanisms 414

return to dark-adapted locations 415 rod adaptational state and 603

Light-evoked activity, development 396, 397f Light levels 558, 559f

high 558, 559f

higher order aberrations (HOAs) and 563, 564f intermediate 558, 559f

low 558, 559f

pupil diameter and 559f, 563 quality of vision and 561

color vision 565

flicker perception 563, 564f, 565f spatial acuity 561, 562f

spatial contrast sensitivity 561, 563f Limenitis butterflies, opsin diversity 152, 153f Limulus phototransduction 616–23

amplification and 617–18 early studies 240

graded depolarizations 417, 418–19, 617, 618–19, 618f kinetics 621, 621f

intracellular Ca2þ increases 620 adaptation and 622

caged IP3-photolysis studies 620–1, 621f cGMP-gated channels and 622

confocal microscopy 620, 620f inward current activation 621, 622 IP3-mediated from SER 620, 621f potential mechanisms of action 622

prevs. post-electrical response 621, 621f timing/kinetics 620, 621, 621f

TRP channels and 622

ion channel summation and 618 microvillus as site of 616, 617f phosphoinositide cascade and 619, 619f

DAG 619–20

Drosophila phototransduction vs. 617, 622, 623 inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3) 619

second messengers 619, 619f reversal potential 617

ventral photoreceptors as model 617, 617f, 618f study methods 617, 618–19, 618f

Limulus polyphemus 416, 617f

Limulus visual system 416–25, 616, 617f differentiation 418

lateral compound eyes 416, 418f, 616 eccentric cells 416–17

lateral optic nerve 417, 419f

neural plexus and lateral inhibition 417–18 ommatidium 416–17

median eyes (ocelli) 418, 419f, 616 optic nerve 417, 418, 419f organization 416, 417f, 616 photoreceptors 419

lateral eyes 416–17, 419–20, 616 median eyes 418, 419–20 microvilli 616, 617f

S-cones vs. 145–6

species differences in horizontal cell selectivity 467 spectral sensitivity 141f

MCP-3, RPE secretion 767 Mean arterial pressure (MAP) 34

Medium-field amacrine cells 447, 448f

Melanoma-associated retinopathy (MAR), retinitis pigmentosa vs. 693–4 Melanopsin 114–15

circadian rhythms in chick retina 73 definition 112

dopamine and 497

expression pattern/distribution 114 in ipRGCs 114–15

homologies 115

knock-ut mice 115–16, 116f mammalian 73, 114 nonmammalian vertebrates 114 phototransduction cascade 115

Melatonin 500–5

biosynthetic enzymes/steps 500 circadian rhythms

release 122 synthesis 71, 72f, 73f

definition 105

dopamine colocalization 502 paracrine functions 500 pineal synthesis 500

retinal functions 503, 504f cGMP effects 503 circadian clock and 109–10 dark adaptation 503–4

dopaminergic neuron effects 495, 502, 503 glutamatergic neuron effects 503 glycinergic neuron effects 503 modulation of transmitter release 495, 503 photoreceptor modulation 503

retinal synthesis 500 evolutionary perspective 501 inner retinal neurons 500 photoreceptors 500 rhythmicity 116

Melatonin receptors 500–5 dimerization 501

retinal location 501, 504f inner layers 502 photoreceptors 501 RPE 502

subtypes/classification 500, 501 specific cyclic rhythms and 503

Memantine 739

Membrane inhibitor of reactive lysis (MIRL) antiangiogenic activity 549 Membrane trafficking rod photoreceptors 677

Mercury, acquired color blindness 139 Mertk gene 818

Mesenchyme, definition 198 Mesopic, definition 558 Mesopic luminous efficiency 559 Mesopic vision 558, 559f, 560f

definition 105, 156, 559, 705, 819, 841 rod/cone contribution 589

Metabolic disorders, optic neuropathies 333 Metabolism

human–Drosophila pathway similarity 727–8 metabolic load and the RPE/subretinal space 763

Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) mGluR6 284

retina

rod–bipolar cell signaling 843, 844f Metabotropic receptors, definition 228 Metaretinochrome,

definition 582 squid 585

Metarhodopsin definition 582

inactivation in Drosophila 242, 244f squid 584–5

Metarhodopsin I 611, 641–2 Metarhodopsin II 611, 641–2, 648

inactivation by rhodopsin kinase 648 Metarhodopsin III 611

MFAT (multifunctional O-acyltransferase) 650

Microaneurysms, diabetic retinopathy 784–5, 784f Microbiomics, definition 836

Microelectrode implants, retinitis pigmentosa treatment 697 Microglia

in AMD 273–4

in neovascularization 352 Microneuroma(s)

definition 360

retinal remodeling 363 Microphthalmia 215

definition 212, 753

Microsurgery, PVR management 714 Microtubules

definition 156, 575

retinomotor movement 221, 222 Microvillar photoreceptors

definition 438 excitation 439

action potentials 439f calcium ion flux 439–40, 440f

diacylglycerol stimulation 440–1, 441f segregation to microvillar lobe 440f single-channel currents 441, 442f

light adaptation 441, 442f phylogenetic distribution 575 squid photopigments 585

Microvilli

definition 575, 668

Limulus 616 phototransduction

generalization 623 polarized light and 671–2, 672f

Midget bipolar cells 23, 453, 454f amacrine cell networks and 281 definition 452

dendritic contacts 453, 454f IPL contacts 457–8, 458–9

Midget (Pb/parvocellular) retinal ganglion cells 25 MIG, RPE secretion 767

Migration see Cell migration

Minimum angle of resolution (MAR) 1, 2f definition 1

visual acuity reporting 3, 3t Minute of arc, definition 1 Mitochondria

definition 811 Mitochondrial disorders

optic neuropathies and 333, 336–7 DOA and 335

LHON 333

reactive oxygen species generation and 739, 739f Mitogen(s) 169

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling circadian regulation of CNGCs 120

IFNg signaling 770–1 Mollusks

ciliary photoreceptors

cGMP role in excitation 443, 444f cGMP role in light adaptation 445, 446f excitation 442, 442f, 443f, 444f

function 442 guanylate cyclase 444

hyperpolarizing receptor potentials 442f light adaptation 445, 446f light-dependent ion channels 445 membrane conductance 443f photopigment 443

microvillar photoreceptors

excitation 439, 439f, 440f, 441f, 442f light adaptation 441, 442f

photoreceptors 438–46

Pecten irradians 439f

Monkey models, glaucoma 38–9, 42, 736 Monoamine oxidase (MAO), definition 717 Monocarboxylate transporter(s) (MCTs)

RPE metabolic load reduction 765, 766f

Monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT1), human RPE 763–4, 766f Monochromacy

blue-cone monochromacy 146 definition 134, 140

rod monochromacy (achromatopsia) 146