Ординатура / Офтальмология / Английские материалы / The Retina and its Disorders_Besharse, Bok_2011

A

AANAT (arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase), circadian rhythms in chick retina 71–3, 72f, 73f

ABCA4 648–9

ABC-type multidrug transporter definition 726

Drosophila white mutation and 727

Abetalipoproteinemia (Bassen–Kornzweig syndrome), retinitis pigmentosa and 703 Ablim 1 238

Absorbance spectra, butterfly visual pigments 150, 150f, 151t Accessory optic nuclei, definition 295

Acetazolamide, effects on RPE 762–3 Acetylcholine (ACh)

retinal function, directional selectivity and 299 starburst amacrine cells 451

Achromatopsia 684, 698 acquired 137 definition 853 inherited 146

Actin

LpMyo3 circadian phosphorylation and 424 retinomotor movement 220, 220, 222

Action potential(s)

amacrine cell generation 25, 447 RGCs 301

rod phototransduction inactivation and 615

Activator protein-1 (AP-1), light-induced damage and 341 Active transport

light-driven protein translocation (photoreceptors) 413 Acuity see Visual acuity

Acyl-CoA:retinol acyltransferase (ARAT) 650 Adaptation

definition 290

different definitions of 325 higher (non-retinal) level 325 retinal see Retinal adaptation

Adaptive immunity definition 270

innate immunity relationship 379

mucosal system see Mucosal immunity; monochromatic aberration correction 8, 9f principle 8f

T-cell-mediated see T-cell-mediated immunity visual correction 9

Adaptive optics (AO) 7–16, 528 benefits 526

definition 525

Adaptive optics OCT (AO OCT) 7, 9, 529–30, 529f, 530f clinical application 530–1, 531f

Adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (AOSLO) 9 eye motion compensation 9–10, 9f

see also Retinal imaging, adaptive optics Adenosine, retinomotor movement regulation 225 Adenylate (adenylyl) cyclase

circadian rhythms in chick retina 70–2 neuropeptides and 478–9

Adherens junctions definition 58, 773

rod photoreceptors 677

Adult hippocampal progenitor cells (AHPCs) 367

Adult vasculogenesis, in choroidal neovascularization (CNV) 92 Afferent pupillary defect, definition 399

Agenesis, definition 198

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) 270–5, 354, 830–5, 854 acquired color blindness 136

blood–retinal barrier breakdown 62, 63f cannabinoids and 719

choroidal neovascularization see Choroidal neovascularization clinical forms 270, 831

definition 87, 354, 717 drusen

classification 831 formation/composition 271, 832 histology 832f

epidemiology 270, 830

fundoscopy 831f genetics 272, 833

ARMS2/HTRA1 273, 834 CFH 273, 833

histopathology 271, 346–8, 832, 832f

immunology/immune system role in pathogenesis 271, 274, 274f infectious agents and 272

inflammation role 271, 272, 341, 346–8 macrophages 271

mouse models 273 neoantigens 272

isoform-specific VEGF mouse model 757 light damage as model for 342

macular structure 831 oxidative stress and 766

iron role 767

smoking relationship 766–7 risk factors 832

smoking 766–7, 833 RPE role 761

oxidative stress and 766 treatment 271, 275, 834

lipoic acid and 766–7 visual acuity 4, 5f

Aggressive posterior retinopathy of prematurity (APROP) 790, 796 Airline pilots, visual acuity requirement 4

Akt kinase, light protection mechanisms and 343

Albumin, immunohistochemical staining, blood–retinal barrier (BRB) assessment 53f, 55, 55f

Allele(s), definition 726

Alpha cells, AII amacrine cells and 323, 323f Alstro¨m syndrome, retinitis pigmentosa 704 Alzheimer’s disease

acquired color blindness 138 glaucoma and 740

Amacrine cells (ACs) 276 AII 448

dopaminergic regulation 497 gap junctions 25, 449–50 information processing and 323

lateral networks 25

looming detector 307–8, 323, 323f location 449–50

morphology 449–50, 450f numbers 450

rod pathway and

position within rod pathway 450

signal transfer from rod bipolar cell to 843 action potential generation 25, 447

cell fate specification 750–1 classification 24, 276, 447, 448f

lateral Acs 276–8, 277f multiple schemes 447–8 vertical Acs 276–8, 277f

clomeleon-labeled 454 definition 276, 494 disease role 283

functional roles 24, 322, 451 structure–function relationship 447–8, 449

historical aspects 447 location 447

morphology 276, 322, 447–51, 448f axons 447

branching patterns 277f, 278, 448, 448f dendrodendritic synapses 276, 277f function relationship 447–8, 449 overlapping (coverage factor) 449 ribbon synapses 278

variability 447–8, 449 neuritic stratification 395 neurochemistry 278, 448–9, 451

cotransmitters/modulators 233, 279, 497 GABA 233, 278, 322, 448–9, 490 GAT-1 expression 230

glutamate receptor expression 278

Amacrine cells (ACs) (continued) glycine 278, 322, 448–9 melatonin receptor expression 502 peptide immunostaining 489, 490

polyaxonal 323 spacing 449

synapses/communication 278 basic connectivity 280f bipolar cells and 278, 286, 289

dendrodendritic synapses 276, 277f development 394f, 395 dopaminergic regulation 497 GABAergic 233, 278, 280–1, 448–9

gap junctions and electrical coupling 447, 449–50 glutamatergic input 278

glycinergic 278, 281, 448–9

interplexiform cell synaptic input 473, 473f lateral communication networks 24 modulation 279

output targets 278 remodeling and disease 283 ribbon synapses 278

see also Amacrine cells, information processing Amacrine cells, information processing 276–83

AC networks 280

directionally selective GC pathway 282, 282f, 322 glycinergic cells of rod pathway 281

midget BC to GC pathway 281 rod pathway 280, 281f, 450, 843

AII cells and 323

local edge detector 323–4, 324f looming detector 323, 323f

contrast gain and 320 crossover inhibition and 322 disease and 283

lateral inhibition and 322 RGC regulation and 301

signal processing fundamentals 279 feedback/feed-forward 279, 279f

retinal amplification control 279–80, 280f submotifs 280

see also specific cell types

Amiodarone, nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy and 403

AMP see Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) AMPA receptors

retina

amacrine cells 278 horizontal cells and 311

Amphibian eye historical aspects 848

regeneration of optic nerve 848 unique retinal properties 847–8 see also individual species

Amyloid deposition in corneal stromal dystrophies b-Amyloid-mediated apoptosis 740, 740f

reduction 741

Amyloid precursor protein (APP) 740 abnormal processing 740

in glaucoma 740 Anastomosis, definition 28 Angiogenesis

choroidal vasculature, developmental 179 definition 179, 541, 753

Angiogenic factor(s) 541–2, 542t Angiomatous, definition 87

Angiopoietin(s), proangiogenic activity 547, 548f Angiotensin, in retinal vasoconstriction 34 Animal models of vision 854

Aniridia, definition 212 Anophthalmia 215–16 definition 198, 212

Anterior segment in retinitis pigmentosa 690 Anterior segment OCT 525–6 Antiangiogenic factor(s) 541–2, 542t, 549 Antiangiogenic therapy 549

Antiglaucoma drugs, disadvantages 735 Antioxidant(s)

light damage, protection mechanisms 344 as neuroprotective agents 740 retinopathy of prematurity treatment 799

Antiproliferative drugs, PVR management 714

Anti-VEGF therapy

choroidal neovascularization 92–3 macular edema 83

AP20187 definition 847

drug-inducible retinal degeneration and 851 Apical junctional complex, definition 773 Apical membrane, definition 773

Apolipoprotein E (ApoE), AMD pathogenesis 274 Apo-opsin, opsin regeneration 651

Apoptosis 734

bystander effect see Bystander effect definition 338, 381, 536, 734, 853 light damage role 341

in optic neuritis 540 pathways 734, 735f

retinal, induced by intense light 867, 868f RP role 857

secondary photoreceptor degenerations 839–40 see also Apoptosis in glaucoma

Apoptosis in glaucoma 386, 734, 736 mechanisms 736

b-amyloid-mediated 740, 740f excitotoxicity 737, 738f extracellular matrix degradation 742 glial–neuronal interactions 741, 741f

neurotrophic factor withdrawal 734, 737f reactive oxygen species 739, 739f

Approach-sensitive ganglion cells 304–5, 307 AII amacrine inhibitory inputs 307–8 receptive field 307

Aqueous humor, innate immunity inhibition 379 Arachidonoyl ethanolamide (AEA) 717, 718f

inactivation/metabolism 717, 718f synthesis/release 717

as TRPV1 ligand 720

2-Arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) 717, 718f inactivation/metabolism 717, 718f release from bipolar cells

voltage-dependent 723

voltage-independent (mGluR1a-mediated) 723 synthesis/release 717

ARAT (acyl-CoA:retinol acyltransferase) 650 Arf4

definition 847

rhodopsin targeting/trafficking 679, 680f, 682f Arf GTPases

family members 679

rhodopsin targeting/trafficking 679, 680f Argus II 357

Arhabdomeral lobes 583f definition 582

Arhabdomeric cell, definition 416 ARMS2/ARMS2, AMD and 834 Arrestin

circadian regulation of expression in Limulus 422–3 cone inactivation and 606, 627–8

complex stability and 606–7 light-dependent translocation 412–13 rod inactivation vs. 606

definition 412, 582, 605, 610

light-driven translocation in photoreceptors 412, 413f, 614–15 active transport vs. diffusion 413–14

mechanism 415 possible functions 413

return to dark-adapted locations 415 threshold light intensity 412–13

metarhodopsin inactivation in Drosophila 242, 244f mutation and retinal degeneration 731

rhodopsin interactions and rod inactivation 611–12, 644–5, 645f light adaptation and 601

light damage and 339–40 light-dependent translocation 412–13

rod vs. cone 606 squid (sArr) 584f, 587

Arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (A-AION) 405 clinical features 405

laboratory investigations 405, 408f signs 405, 405f, 406f

symptoms 405 systemic 405

fundus photography 405f, 406f

management 406

GCA management as 406 steroid therapy and 407 timing and outcome 407

nonarteritic vs. 407 pathogenesis 400f, 405

GCA 405

see also Giant cell arteritis (GCA)

Arteritic posterior ischemic optic neuropathy (A-PION) 408 management 410

Artificial silicon retina (ASR) 355–6

Artiodactyls, horizontal cell morphology 465, 466f

Arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (AANAT), circadian rhythms in chick retina 71–3, 72f, 73f

Ascl1 (Mash1), retinal histogenesis 750 Aspirin therapy

CRVO and 80f, 82, 83f macular edema 82 NA-AION 404–5

Astrocyte(s)

inner blood–retinal barrier (iBRB) 46 in neovascularization 349f, 352

PVR and 710 Atoh7/Ath5

retinal expression regulation 235, 236f suppression 236–7

retinal ganglion cell development role 235 activation of Pou4f/Brn3 expression 237, 237f

Atonal, definition 235

ATP-binding cassette transporter 4 (ABCA4) clearance of all-trans-RAL from OS disks 648–9

Atrophy, definition 753

Autoimmune retinopathy, retinitis pigmentosa vs. 693–4 Autologous RPE grafts, retinitis pigmentosa treatment 697 Autoradiography

definition 487, 815

neuropeptide receptors in retina 491 Autoregulation 34

definition 28

Autosomal dominant vitreochoroidopathy (ADVIRC) 259 Avascular retina

definition 790

retinopathy of prematurity pathophysiology 796 Avastin see Bevacizumab

Avian models, glaucoma 42 Axonal cells (AxCs) 276

information processing 282 neurochemistry 282

Axonemes definition 219, 575

in photoreceptor outer segments 576, 577f, 578f, 579f Axons

definition 381

optic nerve see Optic nerve axons

B

BAC (bacterial artificial chromosome), definition 38, 487 Bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC), definition 38, 487 Bad 736, 738, 738f

definition 734 Bak, definition 734

Balanus phototransduction, early studies 240 Bailey–Lovie chart 2

Bardet–Biedl syndrome 816–17 BBS genes and 681

cilia and 680–1 definition 847

retinitis pigmentosa and 686, 687f

Xenopus laevis models 849–50

Bare light perception (BLP), definition 354 Basal bodies, definition 575

Basal junctions, bipolar cells 662

Base interval of stimulation, definition 506 Basic helix–loop–helix (bHLH), definition 235

Basic helix–loop–helix-Per-ARNT-Sim (bHLH-PAS) domain transcription factors in chick retina 68, 69f, 70f

definition 68

Basolateral membrane, definition 773

Bassen–Kornzweig syndrome (abetalipoproteinemia), retinitis pigmentosa 703

Bassoon (protein) 664

Bathorhodopsin 641

Batten disease (neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis), retinitis pigmentosa and 704 Bax 738

definition 38, 734 B-cell, AMD role 272 Bcl-2 736

definition 734

BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) 736–7 Behr’s syndrome 336

Benzodiazepines, GABAA receptor binding 231 Bevacizumab therapy

AMD 271, 834

choroidal neovascularization 92–3 macular edema 83

BGT-1 230

retinal expression 229t Bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)

RPE fluid regulation and metabolic load 762–3, 764, 765f, 766f transporters 764

Bid 738f definition 734

Bilaterian animals, definition 205 Binary stimulation, definition 506 Bioassays, retinal neuropeptides 487

Biomechanical engineering studies, optic nerve axons, effects of elevated intraocular pressure 382, 383f, 384f

Bionic implants, remodeling and 365 Bipolar cells (BCs)

axon terminal development 392, 392f basal junctions 662 classification/types 389, 452

blue cone (S-cone selective) 453 diffuse 23, 455

functional 23, 285–6, 285f morphological 23, 284, 285f, 452, 453f

inner plexiform layer and 284, 452, 453f, 456–7, 456f co-stratification of pre-/post-synaptic partners 458, 458f synaptic morphology 458

type-specific differences 457–8, 457f morphology 452–60

clomeleon-labeled 454

functional characteristics and 284–5, 285f, 287f immunocytochemistry 455, 456f, 459, 460 layer-specific 284, 285f, 287f

mammalian types 452, 453f mouse vs. primate 453, 453f, 454f nonmammalian types 459, 459f number of cell contacts 455 ribbon synapses 458, 458f

transgenic mouse lines 456f, 457, 459 neurochemistry

dopaminergic regulation 497 endocannabinoids and 719–20, 721 GABA receptors 233, 289, 313 GAT expression 231

glycine receptors 289 species differences

fish vs. mammals 107

mouse vs. primate 453, 453f, 454f species-specific markers 455–6, 456f

synapses

amacrine cells 278, 286, 289 development 393–4, 393f GABAergic input 233 horizontal cells and 286, 313

interplexiform cell synaptic input 473, 473f mixed rod/cone 284–5

rod synapses see Rod bipolar cells zebrafish pde6 mutants 860

see also OFF bipolar cells; ON bipolar cells Bipolar cells, information processing 284–9

amacrine cells and 278, 286, 289 center-surround organization and 284, 286, 287f

BP cell type and input used 286 glutamatergic inputs and 286 hypothetical pathways 286, 288f membrane resistance changes 286

contrast gain and 320

directional selectivity and 299, 459 horizontal cells and 286

feedback control 286–9

Bipolar cells, information processing (continued) feed-forward control 289, 313

morphology-specific light responses 284–5, 285f, 287f Bird models, glaucoma 42

Birthdating, pulse-chase procedure 745 BK channels, rod photoreceptors 821

Blindness, nonvisual light responses 113, 116

Bloch–Schulzberg syndrome (incontinentia pigmenti), retinitis pigmentosa and 704 Blood flow

autoregulation, definition 653 ocular see Ocular blood flow

Blood–ocular barriers 44, 45f

see also Blood–retinal barrier (BRB) Blood–retinal barrier (BRB) 44–50, 51, 659, 773

breakdown 46f, 48, 48f, 51–7 assessment 54

in diabetic retinopathy 783 disease associations 51 future prospects 56 inhibition 55

after injury 348 molecular mechanisms 53 role of inflammation 52 SRS composition and 767 tight junctions 51, 52f vesicular transport 52, 53f

clinical evaluation 48 definition 653, 753 drug permeability 49

fluorescein angiography 48, 48f function 44, 58, 659

improvement studies 67

inner see Inner blood–retinal barrier (iBRB) macular edema and 49

ocular immune privilege and 48

outer see Outer blood–retinal barrier (oBRB) polarity 47

retinal disease treatment and 49 see also Tight junctions (TJs)

Blowfly (Calliphora vicina), diurnal ERG changes 129 Blue-cone monochromacy (BCM) 146

epidemiology 146 genetic basis 146

Blue field entoptic technique, ocular blood flow measurement 36 Blue–yellow color defects 144

definition 134, 140 epidemiology 144–5 glaucoma and 136 penetrance 144–5

red–green color defects vs. 145–6 S-cone gene mutations 142f, 144–5

Bmal1/BMAL1 (brain and muscle aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator 1) 68, 69f, 70f

Bolwig’s organ 132

Bone spicule pigmentation, retinitis pigmentosa 699, 700f B opsin, butterfly 150–1, 151–2, 151t, 154

Bovine model, glaucoma 42 Bradyopsia (slow vision) 329

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) 736–7 Branch retinal vein occlusion (BRVO) 75

Branch Vein Occlusion Study, macular edema treatment 434 BrdU (bromodeoxyuridine) labeling, definition 863

Brn3 see Pou4f/Brn3 Bruch’s membrane 753, 761

age-related changes 758, 759f in AMD 832

definition 87 development 755 function 756

injury of leading to neovascularization 348, 348f OCT tomograms 529–30, 530f

structure 756, 756f Buffer device 276 Bull’s eye maculopathy

mfERG results 510, 512f, 513f retinitis pigmentosa 699, 701f

Butterflies

color vision 148–55

ecological significance 154–5 filtering pigments 153, 154

genetic diversification of opsins 151, 152f, 153f, 154 mechanism 149

ommatidial structure 149, 149f

visual pigments 149–50, 150f, 151t sexual dimorphism 154

spectral heterogeneity 150, 151t evolution 148, 149f, 152f, 153f polarization sensitivity 674

Bystander effect 857 definition 853 occurrence in disease 857

cone dystrophies 858

levels of in photoreceptor degeneration 858 rod–cone dystrophy 854

possible mechanisms 857–8, 858f

C

Calcineurin737–8, 738f Calcium (Ca2+)

molluskan photoreceptors calpain-like protease activation 586 ciliary 445

microvillar 439–40, 440f phototransduction role

cone restoration of levels after 607, 627 light adaptation in cones and 607, 629

light-dependent retinal degeneration and 731

Limulus see Limulus phototransduction rod restoration of levels after 612

retinomotor movement regulation in RPEs 226 ribbon synapses

channels 664 currents 664–5, 664f

intracellular calcium 663, 665 role in vesicular release 665–6

Calcium (Ca2þ) binding proteins, ribbon synapses CaBP4 665

intracellular 663, 665

Calcium-calmodulin kinase II (CaMKII), circadian regulation of CNGCs 120 Calcium (Ca2+) channels

circadian rhythms

in cAMP formation 70

in channel regulation 74, 121 definition 118

imaging and neuropeptide function 479, 480f, 481f in ribbon synapses 664

structure 121–2

Calcium imaging physiology, definition 477 Calcium-induced calcium release (CICR)

definition 661 ribbon synapses 665

Calcium (Ca2+) microdomains, definition 661 Calliphora vicina (blowfly), diurnal ERG changes 129 Calmodulin, light adaptation in rods 600, 602 Calnexin, retinal degeneration and 732 Calpain-like protease 586

definition 582 Calpains 737–8, 738f Calycal processes

definition 219

retinomotor movement 220 structure 813f

Cancer, retinopathy and 693–4

Cancer-associated retinopathy (CAR), retinitis pigmentosa vs. 693–4 Canine models, glaucoma 42

Cannabinoid(s) 717 ocular tissue effects 719

Cannabinoid receptors 717 CB1 receptors 717–18

photoreceptor modulation 721–2 retinal CB1R-IR 719–20

CB2 receptors 717–18 distribution/function 718

retinal localization 719, 721t metabotropic vs. ion channel 717–18

Carbachol 226

Carbonic anhydrase (CA)

diabetic macular edema role 428 RPE role 762–3, 765f

Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors (CAIs) acetazolamide effects on RPE 762–3

in improvement of blood–retinal barrier function 67

Carboxyethyl pyrrole (CEP)–protein adducts, AMD pathogenesis 272 Cardiotrophin-like ligand (CLC), light damage, protection mechanisms 343–4

Car drivers, visual acuity requirement 4 Cartridges, fly optic lamina 124–5, 125f Cascade, definition 156

Caspase-9, definition 847 Cataract, etiological factors

retinitis pigmentosa and 690, 695 Stickler syndrome and 253, 257f

Cathelicidin (LL-37) 376 CCL2 (chemokine ligand 2)

AMD pathogenesis 272–3

CD59 (MIRL), antiangiogenic activity 549 Cecocentral scotoma, definition 333

Cell birth 175

cell cycle exit and 176 linking mechanisms 177

definition 169 Notch and 175, 176f

Cell birthdate definition 745

identification (birthdating) 745 Cell competence, definition 567 Cell culture

retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells 778–9, 778f Cell cycle

G0, definition 169 G1, definition 169 G2, definition 169

M phase, definition 169 regulation 170, 171f

cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor role 171, 171f cyclin role 170, 171f

Rb (retinoblastoma) family role 170, 171f

retinal progenitor cells vs. retinal transition cells 172, 172f R phase, definition 169

S phase, definition 169 Cell cycle exit 175

cell birth and, linking mechanisms 177 definition 169

Notch and 176f

retinoblastoma proteins and 173–4, 174f Cell-cycle rate 175

definition 169 Cell death

apoptosis see Apoptosis retinal remodeling 364

Cell extrinsic signaling, definition 263 Cell fate, definition 745

Cell fate determination definition 567

rod vs. cone 570–1, 570f Cell fate specification

amacrine cell 750–1 definition 263, 567, 745

Cell interactions in retinal vascular development 546 Cell intrinsic signaling, definition 263

Cell migration definition 360

neuronal migration 360, 363 proliferative vitreoretinopathy and 713

Cell polarity definition 676

rod photoreceptors 676

Cellular retinaldehyde-binding protein (CRALBP) 650 Cellular retinol-binding protein type 1 (CRBP1) 650 Center-surround antagonistic receptive field(s) (CSARF)

bipolar cells see under Bipolar cells, information processing definition 284

horizontal cells and 309, 310f, 316 RGC spatial processing 302

difference of Gaussians modeling 302, 303f summary of effects 302

Central retinal artery (CRA) 28, 29, 29f, 75–6, 76f, 181f, 183–4, 653, 654f, 655f definition 28, 179

intraretinal branches 654, 655f controversy 655

retinal layers and 654f, 655 origins 653

sympathetic innervation 658, 659f

Central retinal vein (CRV) 29–30, 75–6, 76f, 184, 655f, 658, 658f, 659f surgical decompression 83

Central retinal vein occlusion (CVRO) 75–86 clinical features 77, 77f

complications 79

cilioretinal artery occlusion 80, 81f

conversion of nonischemic CRVO to ischemic CRVO 81, 82f macular edema 77f, 79

ocular neovascularization 79, 80f vitreous hemorrhage 80, 80f, 81f

course 79

demographic characteristics 76 diagnosis 77–8

ischemic vs. nonischemic CRVO 78, 78f, 79t hematological risk factors 75–6

investigations 85–6 local risk factors 75–6 management 81–2

ischemic CRVO with neovascular glaucoma 85 medical 82

surgical/invasive 82–3

natural history of visual outcome 85 pathogenesis 75

site of occlusion 76, 76f systemic risk factors 75–6

Central serous retinopathy (CSR) mfERG results 510, 511f

RPE barrier breakdown 65, 66f

Centrifugal fibers, interplexiform cell synaptic input 473 Centrioles

definition 575

in photoreceptor outer segments 576, 577f Cephalopods

polarization sensitivity 671–2 behavior based on 673–4

see also Squid

Cerebelloculorenal syndrome (Joubert syndrome), retinitis pigmentosa and 704 Cerebral achromatopsia 137

Cerebral cortex

acquired color blindness 137 prosthetic devices 354–5

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis, optic neuritis 538 Change probability

definition 551 perimetry 556

Channels, definition 163

Cheliceral ganglia, circadian regulation in Limulus 420, 421f Chelicerate, definition 416

Chemical barriers (innate immunity) 376 lactoferrin 377

lipocalin 377 secretory PLA2 376

Chemical-induced color blindness 139 Chemoattractant, definition 541 Chemokine(s)

innate immune response and 379 lacrimal gland and

light damage role 342 RPE and 767, 768t, 769f

Chimeras, zebrafish 856

Chlamydia pneumoniae, AMD pathogenesis 272 Chloride/bicarbonate (Cl--/HCO3-) exchanger RPE and metabolic load reduction 764, 766f Chloride ions (Cl–), RPE transport and 764, 766f

Chloroquine, acquired color blindness 138

CHM gene/CHM protein, retinitis pigmentosa 703 Choriocapillaris f, 755, 756f

definition 28, 87, 179 embryology 179 fenestrae 182 functional role 182

OCT tomograms 529–30, 530f other capillaries vs. 180 pathology 182

RPE role in survival/maintenance 757 Choriocapillaris pillars, definition 87 Choroid

definition 87 development 754, 754f diseases 346–8

function/functional importance 755 impact of changes on RPE 757 inner 30

OCT imaging, three-dimensional wide-field 527, 528f outer (Haller’s layer) 30

receptor expression 757 structure 755, 756f

vasculature see Choroidal vasculature

Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) 87–95, 182, 271 AMD and

dry AMD 182

wet (exudative) AMD 182 animal models 90

growth factor models 90 histopathology 89–90 laser-induced CNV 90

clinical detection 87, 88f fluid/blood leakage 87, 88f fluorescein angiography 87, 89f

indocyanine green (ICG) angiography 87, 89f optical coherence tomography 89, 90f

definition 753 future directions 95 histopathology 89 pathobiology 91–2

angiogenesis 91

angiogenesis inhibitors (natural) 91 complement 92

inflammation 91

matrix metalloproteinase 91 monocytes/macrophages 91 transforming growth factor-b (TGF-b) 91 vascular endothelial growth factor 91 vasculogenesis 92

therapy 92

Choroidal vasculature 30, 179–82 anatomy

cilioretinal artery and 653–4 gross anatomy 179–82, 180 ophthalmic arteries and 180–1

embryology 179 pathology 182 physiology 182 regulation 34–5

Choroideremia, retinitis pigmentosa 703, 704f

Choroid plexus epithelium, retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) vs. 774 Chromatic adaptation 325, 330, 330f

definition 330

pi mechanisms 330 two-stage models 330

Chromatic function of cones 96–104 eccentricity and 102

isolation of responses rod intrusion 101

selective chromatic adaptation 100, 100f silent substitution 100–1, 101f

spatial densities and 101 individual variations 101 retinal variations 101

Chromophore(s) butterfly 149–50, 150f

absorbance spectra 150, 150f, 151t spectral heterogeneity 150

definition 17, 205, 668 polarization sensitivity 670

Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia (CPEO) Kearns–Sayre syndrome and 704

retinitis pigmentosa and 704 Cilia

definition 575, 811 human disease and 680–1

photoreceptors 812f, 813–14, 814f rod photoreceptors 677

ROS as modified cilium 680 Ciliary, definition 205

Ciliary axonemes definition 219

in outer segments of photoreceptors 576, 577f, 578f, 579f Ciliary body (CB), proliferative vitreoretinopathy and 711 Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF)

light damage prevention 343–4

retinal remodeling reversal/prevention 365 retinitis pigmentosa management 696

in rod photoreceptor development 268–9 Ciliary (Gt) opsins 208

Ciliary photoreceptors 567–8 definition 438

Cilioretinal artery 184, 653 choroidal origins 653–4

definition 653

occlusion 80–1, 81f, 653–4, 656f occurrence 184

Cilium see Cilia

Cip/Kip cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors in cell cycle regulation 171, 171f

retinal development role 172f, 174 Circadian clock(s) 112

cell autonomous 127

central (pacemaker) 126, 127 definition 105, 106, 416 entrainment 105

fly circadian system(s) 126 peripheral 126, 127

photoreceptors as 129 synchronization 126

see also Circadian rhythm Circadian oscillators, definition 118

see also Circadian rhythm(s) Circadian photoreception 112–17

blindness and 113, 117 dopamine role 497, 498 interplexiform cells and 475

health implications 475 nonvisual opsins 113

mammalian 113, 115t nonmammalian 113

nonvisual photoreception 112–13 historical aspects 113 mammalian 112–13 nonmammalian 112

photoreceptors 113 classical 116–17 extraocular 112

see also Circadian rhythm(s)

SCN and central projections 112, 113f, 115 Circadian rhythm(s) 116, 118

chick retina 68–74 cAMP 69, 72, 72f

clock genes 68–9, 69f, 70f, 71f iodopsin 73–4

melanopsin 73

melatonin synthesis 71, 72f, 73f phospholipid metabolism 73

clock genes 126–7, 128f definition 68, 112, 494, 500

dopaminergic neuron regulation 108, 495 entrainment, definition 105, 124

eye components 116

ion channels in photoreceptors 118–23 cGMP-gated channels 74, 119

dopamine 120–1

signaling pathways 120, 121f somatostatin 121

channel types 119

L-type voltage-gated calcium channels 74, 121–2 potassium channels 122

regulatory function of circadian rhythms 118, 122–3 retinal disorders caused by abnormalities in 122–3

phase resetting 112, 114f retinomotor movements 219–20, 225 RPE effects 502

Circinate lipid exudates, definition 426 Circle of Zinn 179, 180, 180f, 181f Circular polarization

definition 668 mantis shrimp 674

Circumferential marginal zone (CMZ) 860 definition 863

persistent neurogenesis 865, 867f Circumpallial nerve 439–40

definition 438

Class B scavenger receptors, definition 726 Claudins

definition 773

tight junctions 51–7

RPE 762, 775f, 776, 776f, 778

Clinically significant macular edema 785, 787f, 787t diabetic 428

Clock-controlled genes, definition 68 Clock (clk) gene/protein 127, 128f

Clock genes/proteins

chick retina 68, 69f, 70f, 71f definition 68, 124

Drosophila 126–7, 128f

see also Circadian clock(s) Clomeleon, definition 452 Cnidaria

definition 205 opsins (cnidops) 206

Cnidops (Cnidaria opsins) 206–8

Coat’s disease, retinitis pigmentosa and 700, 701f Co-duplication

definition 205, 210 opsin evolution 210

Coelocanth 154 Collagen(s) disorders

vitreoretinopathies 252, 260 Coloboma, definition 198 Color blindness

acquired 134–9

changes with time 135 classification 134–5 cortical defects/injury 137 inherited vs. 135–6, 135t ocular diseases 136

range 139 toxin-induced 138

clinical assessment 135–6 inherited 140–7

achromatopsia 146

acquired defects vs. 135–6, 135t blue-cone monochromacy 146 blue–yellow (tritan) defects 144 epidemiology 143, 144–5, 146 genetic basis 141, 142f red–green defects 143, 144f, 145f

perceptual consequences 134, 135f, 143–4, 145f, 146 Color constancy, chromatic adaptation and 330

Color Doppler imaging (CDI), ocular blood flow measurement 35, 35f

Color-matching functions, definition 96 Color vision 134, 624

adaptive optics (AO) 11 genetic basis 141–3, 142f variability and 141

impaired see Color blindness insect 209–10

see also Butterflies, color vision light level and 565

opsins and 208 prostheses and 358

Stell chromatic processing model 316, 316f turtle 460

vertebrate vs. insect 209–10

Commission Internationale d’Eclairage (CIE), definition 96 Competence, definition 169, 745

Complement 377, 378 definition 346

ocular immune responses and active defense 378

as chemical barrier 377 immune surveillance 378

ocular inflammation and disease drusen formation 271

factor H (CFH) 272–3, 833 neovascularization 350 neovascularization, choroidal (CNV) 92

proangiogenic activity 548

Complement factor H (CFH), polymorphism in AMD 272–3, 833 Compound eyes

definition 416

insect (fly) 124, 729, 729f, 730f circadian rhythms 127

Limulus lateral eyes 416, 418f polarization sensitivity 671–2, 672f

distinguishing from color vision 672–3 Concentric retinitis pigmentosa 701 Conditional knockout mouse, definition 567

Cone bipolar cells 22–3, 157f, 158, 285–6, 452, 455 cone signaling pathway 23–4, 23

glutamate receptors 23

types/classification 23 functional 23 morphological 23

Cone dystrophies 136, 684, 698, 853–4 bystander effect 858

Cone-isolated ERG responses 706, 706f Cone matrix sheath 813f

Cone mosaic, adaptive optics retinal imaging 11, 11f, 12f Cone opponency 102, 103f

advantages 102–3 Cone pathways definition 105

dynamic range and 845 Cone pedicle, definition 461

Cone photoreceptor(s) 17, 22, 96–7, 140, 156–62, 558, 567, 854 biophysical properties 158

degeneration 136, 684, 698 zebrafish pde6 mutants 860–1

development 568, 569f

from cone precursor 569f, 570f, 571 distributions 101, 568

Drosophila photoreceptors vs. 729, 730f electrical coupling 159, 160–1

cone–cone 160–1 negative feedback and 161

evolution 22, 841

functional properties 159, 624, 625f functional roles 156, 624, 841–2

importance 162 goldfish retina 106, 106f

imaging, adaptive optics (AO) 11

light sensitivity/dynamic range 105–6, 159, 589 efficacy of activation 589

importance to vision 589 rapid responses 589 rods vs. 589

saturation avoidance 589, 594 mosaic 568

adaptive optics retinal imaging 11, 11f, 12f mouse retina 568

numbers 625–6 photopigment 97, 141, 626

dominant negative interactions 145–6 genetics 141–3, 142f

Mu¨ller cells and 18 photobleaching 327 rods vs. 626 variability of 141, 142f

polarized light and 670–1, 672 retinal remodeling and 366

retinomotor movements 219, 220, 220f function 226

regulation by adenosine 225 regulation by cAMP 222–3, 223f, 224f regulation by dopamine 223–4

rod:cone densities 589

rods vs. 18, 589, 605–6, 607, 624, 625f, 626, 628, 628f spatial densities 101

individual variations 101 retinal 101

structure 156, 157f axon 156

gap junctions 159 invagination and triad 158 membrane proteins 158–9 morphology/topology 156 outer segment 626, 648 spectral sensitivity and 159 synapses 22–3, 158, 462 terminal 156

types/subclasses 140, 141f, 159, 568

Cone phototransduction 22, 97, 159, 603, 624–30 achromatopsia and 146

activation 627

PDE and cGMP hydrolysis 627 transducin and 627

adaptation 589–95

bandpass adaptation filter (spatiotemporal) 162 predictive coding and 159

cGMP channels and Ca2+ electrical coupling effects 160, 161

somatostatin 121 definition 118

in molluskan ciliary photoreceptors 445 structure and function 119

Cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels (CNGs) definition 205, 438

rods phototransduction and 635 Cyclin(s)

in cell-cycle regulation 170, 171f retinal development role 172, 172f

Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (CDKIs/CKIs) in cell cycle regulation 171, 171f

retinal development role Cip/Kip 172f, 174 Ink4 172f, 174 p19Arf 174

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) in cell-cycle regulation 170, 171f retinal development role 172, 172f

Cyclopamine 214 Cyclophilin, definition 726 Cyclopia 214, 215f

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) 770–1, 771f Cystoid macular edema 76

CRVO-associated 77f, 79 definition 426

fluorescein angiography 428–30, 429f treatment in RP 696

Cytochalasin D, definition 219 Cytokeratins, definition 708 Cytokines

definition 346, 761

innate immune response and 379

in neovascularization 348, 349f, 350, 351, 351f RPE and 767, 768t, 769f

Cytoskeleton

axonemes in photoreceptor outer segments 576 retinomotor movement in photoreceptors 220, 220f retinomotor movement in RPE cells 223

ribbon synapses 664

rod photoreceptor structure 677

D

Dark adaptation 325, 330 characteristics 331

cones 590–1, 590f, 624–5, 628, 628f factors affecting 628–9

recovery of sensitivity 331, 331f rods vs. 628, 628f

definition 330–1, 596, 624, 705 disadvantageous nature 596, 603 equivalent background concept 331 flicker detection threshold 331 horizontal cells and 314–15

hue (Lie-specific) threshold 331

human gene mutations/genetics and 332 mechanisms 332

photopigment regeneration 332 postreceptoral factors 332 visual cycle regulation 644, 651

retinitis pigmentosa 690, 691 rods 602, 603, 628, 628f, 644

cellular model 603 human plot 603, 604f melatonin and 503–4

recovery of sensitivity 331, 331f time course 331, 331f

transient tritanopia 331–2 Dark current

definition 631

rod phototransduction and 635 Dark light, definition 631

Dark membrane potential, rods 842

Dark noise, rod phototransduction and 633 ‘Dark thermal events’ 821–2

Ddx39, definition 847 Defensins 376 Deformable mirror 8f

definition 7

Demographic, definition 75

Demyelinating disease, mfERG/mfVEP results 522f, 523, 523f Dendrodendritic synapses 277f

definition 276 11-Deoxyjervine 214 Detection acuity 1, 2f measurement 1, 2f

see also Visual acuity

Detection of apoptosing retinal cell (DARC) 734–5 Deutan defects 134, 143–4, 144f

optic neuritis and 137 Deuteranomalous trichromats 143–4, 144f Deuteranopia/deuteranopes 143–4, 144f

definition 134

Devic’s disease, optic neuritis vs. 539 Dextromethorphan 739

DGAT1 (diacylglycerol acyltransferase type-1) 650 Diabetes control and complications trial (DCCT)

definition 781

glycemic control as risk factor 782f, 783f Diabetes mellitus (DM)

classification 781 complications 781–2 definition 781 epidemiology 781 NA-AION 402, 404f

Diabetic macular edema 77–8, 428, 429f carbonic anhydrase role 432 fluorescein angiography 428–9, 429f VEGF role 432, 434–5

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) 781–9 acquired color blindness 137 angiogenesis/neovascularization 185

pathogenesis 783–4 VEGF and ischemia 185

blood–retinal barrier breakdown 64, 65f classification 784, 786t

definition 781 inflammation role 341 interplexiform cells and 475 pathogenesis 782

pericytes 783

PDGF effects on RPE 767–9 risk factors 782

duration of DM 782, 782f glycemic control 782, 782f, 783f screening 788

treatment 785–6, 787–8

Diabetic Retinopathy Clinical Research Network, clinical trials, diabetic macular edema therapies 432, 435

Diacylglycerol (DAG)

Limulus phototransduction and 619–20

in molluskan microvillar photoreceptors 440–1, 441f Diacylglycerol acyltransferase type-1 (DGAT1) 650 Dichoptic stimulation, retinal adaptation studies 325 Dichroism 669–70, 669f

definition 668 Dichromacy

definition 140

horizontal cell cone selectivity and 467 Dielectric surfaces 669–70, 669f

definition 668

Diet, protective against AMD 833 Differentiation, definition 263, 745 Diffuse bipolar cells 23, 454f, 455

Diffuse unilateral neuroretinitis (DUSN), retinitis pigmentosa vs. 693, 696f Diffusion active transport vs. (photoreceptors) 413

Digitalis, acquired color blindness 138 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC)

circadian changes in levels 495 light-induced changes in levels 494–5

Directional selectivity 295–300, 322 bipolar cells 299, 459

definition 276

integration of multiple cooperative mechanisms 299 Direction-selective ganglion cells (DSGCs) 295–300, 305–6, 322

acetylcholine and excitatory input 296, 299 circuitry 296, 298f, 305, 305f, 323f

amacrine cell connections 282, 282f, 306, 322 bipolar cell connections 459

classification/types 304–5