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Seeing

Handbook of Perception and Cognition

2nd Edition

Series Editors

Edward C. Carterette

and Morton P. Friedman

Seeing

Edited by

Karen K. De Valois

Departments of Psychology and Vision Science

University of California at Berkeley

Berkeley, California

San Diego	San Francisco New York
Boston	London Sydney Tokyo

Contents

Contributors	xi
Foreword	xiii
Preface	xv

1 Formation and Sampling of the Retinal Image

	Larry N. Thibos
	I. Introduction	1
	II. Formation of the Retinal Image	2
	A. Optical System of the Eye	2
	B. Physics of Image Formation	4
	C. Linear Systems Description of Image Formation	17
	D. Empirical Evaluation of the Eye as an Imaging System	21
	E. Schematic Models of the Eye	31
	III. Neural Sampling of the Retinal Image	33
	A. Retinal Architecture	33
	B. Functional Implications of Neural Sampling	37
	C. Evidence of Neural Sampling in Perception	41
	IV. Optical versus Sampling Limits to Vision	46
	References	49
2	The Receptive Fields of Visual Neurons
	Robert Shapley
	I. Introduction	55
	II. Receptive Fields of Retinal Ganglion Cells	56
	A. The Two-Mechanisms Model: Center and Surround	58
	B. A Third Mechanism: Nonlinear Subunits	62

vi	Contents
	C. Measuring Receptive Fields—Systems Analysis	64
	D. Lateral Geniculate Nucleus Cell Receptive Fields	66
	III. Visual Cortex	66
	A. Simple and Complex Cells	67
	B. Orientation Selectivity	68
	C. Direction Selectivity	70
	D. Orientation Dynamics	74
	References	76
3	Spatial Vision
	Wilson S. Geisler and Duane G. Albrecht
	I. Introduction	79
	II. Single Neurons and Behavior	80
	A. Levels of Analysis	80
	B. Linking Hypotheses	83
	III. Window of Visibility	84
	A. Space and Time: Retinal Coordinates	84
	B. Space and Time: Environmental Coordinates	85
	C. Naturalistic Viewing Conditions	85
	D. Retinal Eccentricity, Luminance, and Color	86
	IV. Optics and Photon Noise	88
	V. Retina and Lateral Geniculate Nucleus	89
	A. Selectivity	89
	B. Performance	96
	VI. Primary Visual Cortex	99
	A. Selectivity	99
	B. Performance	111
	VII. Implications for Object Recognition and Scene Interpretation	121
	References	123
4	Color Vision
	Karen K. De Valois and Russell L. De Valois
	I. Introduction	129
	A. Trichromacy	129
	B. Color Spaces and the Representation of Color	131
	II. Physiology	135
	A. Photopigments and Spectral Sensitivity	135
	B. Retino-Geniculate Processing	139
	C. Cortex	145
	III. Chromatic Discriminations and Their Physiological Bases	151
	A. Chromatic Discrimination of Uniform Stimuli	151
	B. Spatial Contrast Sensitivity	155

	Contents	vii
	C. Temporal Contrast Sensitivity	158
	D. Color Vision Defects	159
	IV. Color Appearance and Its Physiological Bases	160
	A. Opponency	160
	B. Hue	161
	C. Saturation	163
	D. Brightness or Lightness	164
	E. Similitude and Contrast	165
	F. Adaptation and Afterimages	166
	V. The Role of Color in Spatial Vision	167
	A. Color Motion	169
	References	170
5	Binocular Vision
	Clifton Schor
	I. Perceived Visual Direction	177
	A. Oculocentric Direction	177
	B. The Cyclopean Eye	177
	C. Egocentric Direction	178
	D. Visual Directions of Disparate Images	179
	E. Visual Direction of Partially Occluded Objects	179
	F. Violations of Hering’s Laws of Visual Direction	179
	II. Binocular Correspondence	180
	A. Binocular Disparity	181
	B. Corresponding Retinal Points	181
	C. The Horizontal Horopter	182
	D. The Vertical Horopter	184
	E. Coordinate Systems for Binocular Disparity	187
	F. Monocular Spatial Distortions and the
	Empirical Binocular Disparity Map	189
	III. Binocular Sensory Fusion	191
	A. Panum’s Fusional Areas	191
	B. Allelotropia	192
	C. Spatial Constraints	193
	D. Spatial Frequency	193
	E. Retinal Eccentricity	195
	F. Disparity Gradient Limits	195
	G. Temporal Constraints	197
	H. Color Fusion	197
	IV. Encoding Disparity: The Matching Problem	197
	A. Classes of Matchable Tokens	200
	B. Matching Constraints	202
	C. Computational Algorithms	205

viii	Contents
	D. Interocular Correlation	208
	E. Off-Horopter Interocular Correlation Sensitivity	211
	F. Extrinsic and Intrinsic Noise and Interocular Correlation	212
	G. Estimating Disparity Magnitude	214
	H. Disparity Pools or Channels	216
	V. Stereoscopic Depth Perception	217
	A. Depth Ordering and Scaling	217
	B. Hyperacuity, Superresolution, and Gap Revolution	219
	C. Stereo-Acuity	223
	D. Relative Disparity	224
	E. Stereo-Depth Contrast	224
	F. Position and Phase Limits	226
	G. Off-Horopter and Eccentric Depth Discrimination	230
	H. Spatial Interactions	231
	I. The Contrast Paradox	231
	J. Temporal Constraints	232
	K. Upper Disparity Limit for Stereopsis	234
	L. Sustained and Transient Stereopsis	234
	M. Transient Vergence	237
	VI. Occlusion Stereopsis	237
	A. Discriminating between Monocular and Binocular Features	238
	B. Occlusion Geometry	239
	C. Depth Ambiguity	241
	VII. Binocular Suppression	241
	A. Interocular Blur Suppression	242
	B. Suspension	243
	C. Binocular Retinal Rivalry	243
	D. Binocular Percept Rivalry	246
	E. Permanent-Occlusion Suppression	248
	References	249
6	Seeing Motion
	Andrew Derrington
	I. Overview	259
	II. Representing Image Motion	260
	A. Movies	261
	B. Space–Time Images	262
	C. Frequency Domain Representations	263
	D. Second-Order Motion	264
	E. Representing Motion in 2-D Velocity Space	266
	III. Analyzing Direction of Motion along a Given Axis	268
	A. Principles and Approaches	268
	B. Experimental Data	274

Contents	ix
IV. Integrating Motion Signals from Different Axes:
Two-Dimensional Vectors	285
A. What Is the Problem in Going from 1-D to 2-D Motion?	285
B. How Does the Visual System Compute 2-D Motion
from 1-D Motion Vectors?	287
V. Second-Order Motion Mechanisms	296
A. Importance of Second-Order Motion Signals	296
B. What Sort of Mechanism Analyzes the Motion
of Contrast Variations?	298
VI. Conclusions	306
References	306
The Neural Representation of Shape
Jack L. Gallant
I. Introduction	311
II. Organization of the Ventral Pathway	312
III. Physiological Properties	315
A. Area V1	315
B. Area V2	316
C. Area V4	318
D. Posterior Inferotemporal Cortex	319
E. Central and Anterior Inferotemporal Cortex	319
IV. Attention, Learning, Memory, and Motor Signals	321
A. Area V1	321
B. Area V4	322
C. Central and Anterior Inferotemporal Cortex	323
V. Computational Principles	324
A. Area V1	324
B. Area V2	325
C. Area V4	325
D. Central and Anterior Inferotemporal Cortex	327
VI. Current Research in the Neurobiology of Form Vision	329
References	329
Visual Attention
Jeremy M. Wolfe
I. Introduction	335
A. Other Resources	336
II. Vision before Attention	337
A. The Uses and Interpretation of Visual Search
Experiments	337
B. Typical Conditions and Pitfalls in Visual Search Tasks	341
C. Texture Segmentation and Visual Search	343

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