- •Sjögren’s Syndrome
- •Foreword
- •Contents
- •Contributors
- •1.1 Primary Sjögren’s Syndrome
- •1.1.1 Diagnostic Criteria
- •1.1.2 Incidence
- •1.1.3 Prevalence
- •References
- •2.1 Introduction
- •2.2 Genetic Epidemiology of SS
- •2.3 Key Concepts in Genetics, Transcriptomics, and Proteomics
- •2.4 Candidate Genes and SS Pathogenesis
- •2.5 Gene Expression Studies in SS
- •2.6 Protein Expression Studies in SS
- •2.7 Future Directions
- •References
- •3.1 Introduction
- •3.2 Characteristics of Autoimmune Lesions
- •3.3 Epithelial Cells as Key Regulators of Autoimmune Responses
- •3.4 Tissue Injury and Repair
- •3.4.1 Functional Impairment of Glands and Autonomic Nervous System Involvement
- •3.4.2 Extracellular Matrix and Tissue Damage
- •3.5 Pathogenetic Factors
- •3.5.1 Genetic Predisposition
- •3.5.2 Environmental Factors
- •3.5.3 Hormonal
- •3.6 Conclusions/Summary
- •References
- •4.1 Hepatitis C Virus
- •4.2 Hepatitis B Virus
- •4.5 Coxsackieviruses
- •4.6 Herpes Viruses
- •4.7 Human Parvovirus B19
- •4.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •5.1 The Role of T Cells in SjS
- •5.2 The Role of B Cells in SjS
- •5.2.1 The Impact of B Cell Cytokines
- •5.2.2 Ontogeny of B Lymphocytes
- •5.2.3 Subpopulations of B Cells
- •5.2.4 B Cell Monoclonal Expansion
- •5.3 B Cells Are Not Dispensable
- •5.3.1 B Cell Chemokines and Antibody Production
- •5.3.2 Peculiarities of B Cell Products: Cytokines and IgA Autoantibodies
- •5.3.3 Intrinsic Abnormalities of B Cells in Primary SjS
- •5.4 Conclusion
- •References
- •6.1 Introduction
- •6.3 Objective Determination of Salivary Flow
- •6.4 Etiology of Xerostomia
- •6.5 Orofacial Manifestations in SS
- •6.5.1 Salivary Involvement
- •6.5.2 Neurological Involvement
- •6.6 Sialochemical Changes in SS
- •6.7 Hyposalivation: Clinical Features and Complications
- •6.7.1 Clinical Features
- •6.7.2 Examination
- •6.7.3 Clinical Signs of Hyposalivation
- •6.7.4 Effect of Hyposalivation on Quality of Life
- •6.7.5 Management of Hyposalivation
- •6.7.6 Chronic Complications of Hyposalivation
- •Box 6.1: Chronic Complications of Hyposalivation
- •6.7.6.1 Dental Caries
- •Box 6.2: Strategies for Reducing Dental Caries in Patients with Sjögren’s Syndrome
- •6.7.6.2 Periodontal Health
- •6.7.6.3 Oral Functional Impairments
- •6.7.6.4 Oral Infections
- •Box 6.3: Factors Predisposing to Oral Candidiasis
- •6.7.6.6 Angular Stomatitis
- •6.7.6.7 Candidiasis
- •6.7.6.8 Bacterial Sialadenitis
- •6.7.6.9 Oral Ulceration
- •6.8 Salivary Gland Enlargement
- •6.8.1 Box 6.5: Non-Salivary Causes of Salivary Gland Enlargement
- •6.9 Salivary Swelling in SS
- •References
- •Key Websites (Accessed Dec 19, 2009)
- •7.1 Sjögren’s Syndrome: A Disease of the Lacrimal Functional Unit
- •7.2 Components of the Lacrimal Functional Unit
- •7.3 Lacrimal Gland
- •7.4 Conjunctiva
- •7.5 Cornea
- •7.6 Meibomian Glands and Eyelids
- •7.7 Neural Innervation
- •7.8 Mechanisms of Dysfunction
- •7.8.1 Lacrimal Gland
- •7.8.2 Ocular Surface
- •7.9 Diagnosis of Ocular Involvement in Sjögren’s Syndrome
- •7.10 Treatment of LFU Dysfunction
- •References
- •8.1 Introduction
- •8.2 Otologic Manifestations
- •8.3 Sinus and Nasal Manifestations
- •8.4 Laryngopharyngeal and Tracheal Manifestations
- •References
- •9.1 Epidemiology of Fatigue
- •9.2 Assessing Fatigue
- •9.4 Relationship of Fatigue to Cognitive Symptoms and to Depression
- •9.5 Fatigue Viewed From the Physiological Perspective: Relationships Between Fatigue, Sleep Quality, and Neuroendocrine Function
- •9.6 Relationship Between Fibromyalgia and SS
- •9.7 Management of Pain and Fatigue
- •9.8 Summary
- •References
- •10.1 Introduction
- •10.2 Arthralgias and Arthritis
- •10.3 Arthritis: Patterns of Expression
- •10.4 Differential Diagnosis: RA, SLE, and Other Arthropathies
- •References
- •11.1 Introduction
- •11.2 Epidemiology
- •11.3 Skin Changes Encountered in Primary SjS
- •11.3.1 Pruritus
- •11.3.2 Annular Erythema of SjS
- •11.3.3 Eyelid Dermatitis
- •11.3.4 Panniculitis
- •11.3.5 Primary Nodular Cutaneous Amyloidosis
- •11.3.6 B Cell Lymphoma
- •11.4 Skin Changes Encountered in Secondary SjS
- •11.4.1 Skin Changes Associated with Lupus Erythematosus
- •References
- •12.1 Introduction
- •12.2 Epidemiology
- •12.3 Histopathology
- •12.4 Laboratory Findings
- •12.5 Pathogenesis
- •12.6 Clinical Findings
- •12.7 Skin
- •12.8 Peripheral and Central Nervous System
- •12.9 Other Organs
- •12.10 Vasculitis and Mortality
- •12.11 Treatment
- •References
- •13.1 Introduction
- •13.2 Pericarditis
- •13.3 Myocarditis
- •13.4 Valvular Abnormalities
- •13.5 Diastolic Dysfunction
- •13.6 Atrioventricular Block
- •13.7 Subclinical Atherosclerosis
- •13.8 Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension
- •13.9 Autonomic Cardiovascular Dysfunction
- •13.10 Therapeutic Management
- •13.11 Conclusion
- •References
- •14.1 Introduction
- •14.2 Airway Disease
- •14.2.1 Overview
- •14.2.2 Pathology
- •14.2.3 Imaging Studies
- •14.3 Interstitial Lung Disease
- •14.3.1 Overview
- •14.3.2 Pathology
- •14.3.4 Usual Interstitial Pneumonia
- •14.3.5 Follicular Bronchiolitis
- •14.3.6 Lymphocytic Interstitial Pneumonia
- •14.3.7 Cryptogenic Organizing Pneumonia
- •14.3.8 Clinical Features
- •14.3.9 Imaging Studies
- •14.4 Pleuritis
- •14.5 Diagnosis and Management
- •References
- •15.1 Evaluation of the Sjögren’s Syndrome and Raynaud’s Phenomenon
- •15.2 Management of Raynaud’s Phenomenon
- •15.2.1 Vasodilator Therapy
- •15.2.2 Calcium Channel Blockers
- •15.2.3 Adrenergic Blockers
- •15.2.4 Nitrates
- •15.2.5 Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors
- •15.2.6 Prostacyclins
- •15.2.7 Other Agents
- •15.3 Surgical Options
- •15.3.1 Sympathectomies
- •15.3.2 Management of Critical Digital Ischemia
- •References
- •16.1 Dysphagia
- •16.3 Chronic Gastritis
- •16.5 Association with Celiac Disease
- •16.6 Intestinal Vasculitis
- •16.7 Other Intestinal Diseases
- •16.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •17.1 Introduction
- •17.2 Primary Biliary Cirrhosis (PBC)
- •17.2.2 Similarities, Differences, and Overlap Among SS and PBC
- •17.2.3 Epithelium Involvement
- •17.2.4 Animal Models
- •17.2.5 Histology and Serology
- •17.3 Autoimmune Hepatitis (AIH)
- •17.4 Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Infection and Sicca Syndrome
- •17.5 Algorithm for the Diagnosis of Liver Involvement in SS
- •References
- •18.1 Introduction
- •18.3 Involvement of the Pancreas in SjS
- •18.3.1 Clinical Presentation
- •18.3.2 Autoantibodies
- •18.3.3 Pancreatic Enzymes
- •18.3.4 Pathology
- •18.3.5 Imaging Studies of the Pancreas
- •18.4 Autoimmune Pancreatitis
- •18.4.1 Introduction
- •18.4.2 Clinical Features
- •18.4.3 Imaging
- •18.4.4 Serology
- •18.4.5 Pathology
- •18.4.6 Diagnostic Criteria
- •18.5.1 Introduction
- •18.5.2 Nomenclature
- •18.5.3 Clinical Manifestations
- •18.5.4 Serological Issues
- •18.5.5 Pathology
- •18.5.6 Diagnostic Criteria
- •18.6 Conclusions
- •References
- •19.1 Introduction
- •19.2 Interstitial Nephritis in Primary Sjögren’s Syndrome
- •19.2.1 Historical Aspects
- •19.2.2 Clinical Features
- •19.2.3 Histology
- •19.2.4 Pathogenesis
- •19.2.5 Differential Diagnosis
- •19.2.6 Treatment
- •19.3 Glomerulonephritis in Primary Sjögren’s Syndrome
- •19.3.1 Historical Aspects
- •19.3.2 Clinical Features
- •19.3.3 Histology
- •19.3.4 Pathogenesis
- •19.3.5 Differential Diagnosis
- •19.3.6 Treatment
- •19.4 Painful Bladder Syndrome/Interstitial Cystitis and Primary Sjögren’s Syndrome
- •19.4.1 Historical Aspects
- •19.4.2 Clinical, Cytoscopic, and Histologic Features
- •19.4.3 Pathogenesis and Association with Sjögren’s Syndrome
- •19.4.4 Differential Diagnosis
- •19.4.5 Treatment
- •References
- •20.2 Cerebral Lesions
- •20.3 Differential Diagnosis with Multiple Sclerosis, Neuromyelitis Optica, and Antiphospholipid Syndrome
- •20.4 Cranial Nerve Involvement
- •20.5 Diagnostic Algorithm of SS Patient with CNS Lesions, Myelitis, Meningitis
- •References
- •21.3 Sensorimotor Demyelinating Polyneuropathy (CIDP)
- •21.4 Multiple Mononeuropathy or Mononeuritis Multiplex
- •21.5 Sensory Ataxic Neuronopathy
- •21.6 Small Fiber Painful Sensory Neuropathy
- •21.7 Restless Leg Syndrome
- •References
- •22.1 Introduction
- •22.2 Pathogenesis of Autonomic Dysfunction in pSS
- •22.3 Diagnostic Tests
- •22.4 Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Disorders
- •22.4.1 Secretomotor Disorder
- •22.4.2 Urinary Disorder
- •22.4.3 Gastrointestinal Disorder
- •22.4.4 Pupillomotor Disorder
- •22.4.5 Orthostatic Intolerance
- •22.4.6 Vasomotor Disorder
- •22.5 Diagnostic Algorithm of pSS Patient with Autonomic Dysfunction
- •22.6 Treatment
- •References
- •23.1 Introduction
- •23.5 Prolactin and Sjögren Syndrome
- •23.7 Perspectives of Hormonal Treatment on Sjögren Syndrome
- •23.8 Conclusions
- •References
- •24.1 Introduction
- •24.2 Gynecological Manifestations in Sjögren’s Syndrome
- •24.3.1 Epidemiology and Clinical Features of NLS and Congenital Heart Block (CHB)
- •24.3.2 Maternal and Fetal Outcomes in NLS
- •24.3.3 Diagnosis
- •24.3.4 Risk Factors
- •24.3.5 Pathogenesis of Congenital Heart Block
- •References
- •25.1 Introduction
- •25.2 Serum Proteins
- •25.2.1 Acute Phase Reactants
- •25.2.2 Gammaglobulins
- •25.2.2.1 Polyclonal Hypergammaglobulinemia
- •25.2.2.3 Circulating Monoclonal Immunoglobulins
- •25.3 Hematological Abnormalities
- •25.3.1 Normocytic Anemia
- •25.3.2 Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia
- •25.3.3 Aplastic Anemia
- •25.3.4 Pure Red Cell Aplasia
- •25.3.5 Myelodysplasia
- •25.3.6 Pernicious Anemia
- •25.3.7 Leukopenia
- •25.3.8 Lymphopenia
- •25.3.9 Neutropenia
- •25.3.10 Eosinophilia
- •25.3.11 Thrombocytopenia
- •25.4 Conclusions
- •References
- •26.2 Questionnaires
- •26.3 Ocular Tests
- •26.3.1 Schirmer Test
- •26.3.2 Vital Dyes
- •26.3.3 Rose Bengal
- •26.3.4 Fluorescein
- •26.3.5 Lissamine Green
- •26.3.7 Tear Osmolarity
- •26.3.8 Tear Meniscus
- •26.3.9 Tear Proteins
- •26.3.10 Ferning Test
- •26.3.11 Ocular Cytology
- •26.4 Oral Tests
- •26.4.1 Wafer Test
- •26.4.2 Whole Saliva Flow Collection
- •26.4.3 Saxon Test
- •26.4.5 Impression Cytology
- •26.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •27.1 Salivary Scintigraphy
- •27.2 Sialography
- •27.3 Ultrasound
- •27.4 Tomography
- •27.5 Magnetic Resonance
- •27.6 Salivary Gland Biopsy
- •27.6.1 Labial Gland Biopsy
- •27.6.2 Daniels’ Technique
- •27.6.3 Punch Biopsy
- •27.6.4 Major Salivary Gland Biopsy
- •27.6.5 Lacrimal Gland Biopsy
- •27.6.6 Focus Score
- •27.7 Is There an Alternative to Labial Salivary Gland Biopsy?
- •References
- •28.1 Antinuclear Antibodies
- •28.3 Antibodies Against Nonnuclear Antigens
- •28.7 Antiphospholipid Antibodies
- •28.9 Anticentromere Antibodies
- •28.12 Rheumatoid Factor and Cryoglobulins
- •28.13 Complement
- •28.14 Conclusion
- •References
- •29.1 Introduction
- •29.2 Historical Overview and Sets of Criteria
- •29.3 Preliminary European Criteria
- •References
- •30.1 Introduction
- •30.2 Clinical and Serological Peculiarities of Sjögren’s Syndrome
- •30.3 Assessment of Disease Activity or Damage in Systemic Autoimmune Diseases
- •30.4 Methodological Procedures to Develop Disease Status Criteria
- •30.5 Development of Disease Status Indices for Sjögren’s Syndrome
- •30.5.1 The Italian Approach
- •30.5.2 The British Approach
- •30.5.3 The EULAR Initiative
- •References
- •31.1 Introduction
- •31.3 Other Generic QoL/HRQoL Measures
- •31.6 Predictors of QoL and HRQoL (WHOQoL) in PSS
- •31.7 Therapeutic Interventions
- •31.8 Conclusions and Summary
- •References
- •32.1 Introduction
- •32.2 SS Associated with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)
- •32.3 SS Associated with Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)
- •32.5 SS Associated with Other Systemic Autoimmune Diseases
- •32.5.1 Mixed Connective Tissue Disease
- •32.5.2 Systemic Vasculitis
- •32.5.3 Antiphospholipid Syndrome (APS)
- •32.5.4 Sarcoidosis
- •32.6.1 SS Associated with Autoimmune Thyroiditis
- •32.6.2 SS Associated with Autoimmune Liver Disease
- •32.6.3 Association of SS with Coeliac Disease
- •32.7 Conclusions
- •References
- •33.1 Introduction
- •33.2 Methodological Considerations
- •33.3 Primary Sjögren’s Syndrome and Lymphoma
- •33.3.1 Risk Levels
- •33.3.2 Lymphoma Subtypes
- •33.4 Prediction of Lymphoma
- •33.4.1 Can We Tell Who Will Develop Lymphoma and When This May Occur?
- •33.4.2 Established Risk Factors
- •33.4.3 Recently Proposed Newer Risk Factors
- •33.5 Pathogenetic Mechanisms
- •33.6 Medication and Risk of Lymphoma in SS
- •33.7 Associated Sjögren’s Syndrome and Lymphoma
- •33.8 Other Cancers in SS
- •33.9 Conclusion
- •References
- •34.1 Introduction
- •34.2 Mortality and Causes of Death in pSS
- •34.4 Conclusions
- •References
- •35.1 Introduction
- •35.2 General Considerations
- •35.3.1 Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca
- •35.3.2 Xerostomia
- •35.3.3 Systemic Dryness
- •35.3.4 Extraglandular Manifestations
- •35.4 Diagnosis
- •35.4.2 Diagnostic Methods
- •35.4.2.1 Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca
- •35.4.2.2 Xerostomia
- •35.4.2.3 Salivary Gland Biopsy
- •35.4.2.4 Immunological Tests
- •35.4.2.5 Other Laboratory Findings
- •35.5 Comorbidities and Occupational Disability
- •35.6 Treatment
- •35.6.1 Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca
- •35.6.2 Xerostomia
- •35.6.3 Management of Extraglandular Features
- •35.7 When to Refer to a Specialist
- •References
- •36.1 Background
- •36.2 General Approach to Dry Mouth
- •36.3 Additional Dental Needs of the SjS Patient
- •36.3.1 Background
- •36.4 Particular Oral Needs of the SjS Patient to Be Assessed by the Rheumatologist
- •36.5 Use of Secretagogues
- •36.5.1 Other Cholinergic Agonists
- •36.5.2 Additional Topical Treatments
- •36.5.3 Systemic Therapy
- •36.6 Oral Candidiasis
- •36.7 Treatment and Management of Cutaneous Manifestations
- •36.7.1 Treatment of Dry Skin in SjS Is Similar to Managing Xerosis in Other Conditions
- •36.7.2 Vaginal Dryness
- •36.7.3 Special Precautions at the Time of Surgery
- •References
- •37.1 Introduction
- •37.2 Marginal Zone (MZ) Lymphomas
- •37.2.1 Extranodal Marginal Zone Lymphomas of MALT Type
- •37.2.2 Therapeutic Approaches of MALT Lymphomas
- •37.2.4 Managing NMZL
- •37.3.1 Histology and General Considerations
- •37.3.2 Treatment of DLBCL
- •37.4 Conclusions
- •References
- •38.1 Introduction
- •38.2 Antimalarials
- •38.4 Glucocorticoids
- •38.5 Azathioprine
- •38.6 Cyclophosphamide
- •38.7 Methotrexate
- •38.8 Cyclosporine
- •38.9 Conclusion
- •References
- •39.3 Mycophenolic Acid
- •39.4 Mizoribine
- •39.5 Rebamipide
- •39.6 Diquafosol
- •39.7 Cladribine
- •39.8 Fingolimod
- •References
- •40.1.2.1 Serum BAFF in SS
- •40.1.3 BAFF Is Secreted by Resident Cells of Target Organs of Autoimmunity
- •40.2 Rituximab in SS
- •40.2.1 The Different Studies Assessing Rituximab in SS
- •40.2.2 Safety of Rituximab
- •40.2.3 Increase of BAFF After Rituximab Therapy
- •40.3.1 Epratuzumab
- •40.4 Conclusion
- •References
- •41.1 Introduction
- •41.2 Cytokine Targeted Therapies
- •41.2.2 Etanercept
- •41.2.3 Interferon Alpha
- •41.2.4 Emerging Anticytokine Therapies
- •41.3 T Cell Targeted Therapies
- •41.3.1 Efalizumab
- •41.3.2 Alefacept
- •41.3.3 Abatacept
- •41.4 Conclusion
- •References
- •42.1 Introduction
- •42.2 Progression and Disease Activity in SjS
- •42.2.1 Saliva
- •42.2.2 Serum
- •42.2.3 Labial or Parotid Tissue
- •42.3 Molecular Targets for Potential Therapeutic Interventions
- •42.3.1 Interferons
- •42.3.2 Cytokines
- •42.3.3 B Cell Activating Factors
- •42.3.4 B and T Cell Receptors
- •42.3.4.1 Rituximab
- •42.3.4.2 Epratuzumab
- •42.3.4.3 Abatacept
- •42.4 Gene Therapy
- •42.5 Stem Cell Therapy
- •42.6 Conclusion
- •References
- •Index
24 Gynecological and Reproductive Complications in Primary Sjögren’s Syndrome |
343 |
References
1.Capriello P, Barale E, Cappelli N, Lupo S, Teti G. Sjogren’s syndrome: clinical, cytological, histological and colposcopic aspects in women. Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol. 1988;15:9–12.
2.Skopouli FN, Papanikolaou S, Malamou-Mitsi V, Papanikolaou N, Moutsopoulos HM. Obstetric and gynaecological profile in patients with primary Sjogren’s syndrome. Ann Rheum Dis. 1994;53:569–73.
3.Mulherin DM, Sheeran TP, Kumararatne DS, Speculand B, Luesley D, Situnayake RD. Sjogren’s syndrome in women presenting with chronic dyspareunia. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1997;104:1019–23.
4.Cirpan T, Guliyeva A, Onder G, Terek MC, Ozsaran A, Kabasakal Y, et al. Comparison of human papillomavirus testing and cervical cytology with colposcopic examination and biopsy in cervical cancer screening in a cohort of patients with Sjogren’s syndrome. Eur J Gynaecol Oncol. 2007;28:302–6.
5.Marchesoni D, Mozzanega B, De Sandre P, Romagnolo C, Gambari PF, Maggino T. Gynaecological aspects of primary Sjogren’s syndrome. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1995;63:49–53.
6.Haga HJ, Gjesdal CG, Irgens LM, Ostensen M. Reproduction and gynaecological manifestations in women with primary Sjogren’s syndrome: a case-control study. Scand J Rheumatol. 2005;34:45–8.
7.Boh EE. Neonatal lupus erythematosus. Clin Dermatol. 2004;22:125–8.
8.Brucato A, Cimaz R, Caporali R, Ramoni V, Buyon J. Pregnancy outcomes in patients with autoimmune diseases and anti-Ro/SSA antibodies. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2011;40(1): 27–41.
9.Buyon JP, Brucato A, Friedman DM. What’s in a name? Ann Rheum Dis. 2008;67:732; discussion 732.
10. Routsias JG, Tzioufas AG. Sjogren’s syndrome – study of autoantigens and autoantibodies. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2007;32:238–51.
11. Vitali C, Bombardieri S, Jonsson R, Moutsopoulos HM, Alexander EL, Carsons SE, et al. Classification criteria for Sjogren’s syndrome: a revised version of the European criteria proposed by the American-European Consensus Group. Ann Rheum Dis. 2002;61:554–8.
12. Siren MK, Julkunen H, Kaaja R. The increasing incidence of isolated congenital heart block in Finland. J Rheumatol. 1998;25:1862–4.
13. Michaelsson M, Engle MA. Congenital complete heart block: an international study of the natural history. Cardiovasc Clin. 1972;4:85–101.
14. Lee LA. Neonatal lupus erythematosus. J Invest Dermatol. 1993;100:9S–13S.
15. Sontheimer RD, Maddison PJ, Reichlin M, Jordon RE, Stastny P, Gilliam JN. Serologic and HLA associations in subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus, a clinical subset of lupus erythematosus. Ann Intern Med. 1982;97:664–71.
16. Sontheimer RD, McCauliffe DP. Pathogenesis of anti-Ro/SS-A autoantibody-associated cutaneous lupus erythematosus. Dermatol Clin. 1990;8:751–8.
17. Watson R, Kang JE, May M, Hudak M, Kickler T, Provost TT. Thrombocytopenia in the neonatal lupus syndrome. Arch Dermatol. 1988;124:560–3.
18. Kanagasegar S, Cimaz R, Kurien BT, Brucato A, Scofield RH. Neonatal lupus manifests as isolated neutropenia and mildly abnormal liver functions. J Rheumatol. 2002;29:187–91.
19. Laxer RM, Roberts EA, Gross KR, Britton JR, Cutz E, Dimmick J, et al. Liver disease in neonatal lupus erythematosus. J Pediatr. 1990;116:238–42.
20. Cimaz R, Spence DL, Hornberger L, Silverman ED. Incidence and spectrum of neonatal lupus erythematosus: a prospective study of infants born to mothers with anti-Ro autoantibodies. J Pediatr. 2003;142:678–83.
21. Ross G, Sammaritano L, Nass R, Lockshin M. Effects of mothers’ autoimmune disease during pregnancy on learning disabilities and hand preference in their children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003;157:397–402.
344 |
A.V. Goules and A.G. Tzioufas |
22. Boros CA, Spence D, Blaser S, Silverman ED. Hydrocephalus and macrocephaly: new manifestations of neonatal lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;57:261–6.
23. Schmidt KG, Ulmer HE, Silverman NH, Kleinman CS, Copel JA. Perinatal outcome of fetal complete atrioventricular block: a multicenter experience. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1991;17: 1360–6.
24. Fesslova V, Vignati G, Brucato A, De Sanctis M, Butera G, Pisoni MP, et al. The impact of treatment of the fetus by maternal therapy on the fetal and postnatal outcomes for fetuses diagnosed with isolated complete atrioventricular block. Cardiol Young. 2009;19:282–90.
25. Moak JP, Barron KS, Hougen TJ, Wiles HB, Balaji S, Sreeram N, et al. Congenital heart block: development of late-onset cardiomyopathy, a previously underappreciated sequela. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37:238–42.
26. Udink ten Cate FE, Breur JM, Cohen MI, Boramanand N, Kapusta L, Crosson JE, et al. Dilated cardiomyopathy in isolated congenital complete atrioventricular block: early and long-term risk in children. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37:1129–34.
27. Nield LE, Silverman ED, Smallhorn JF, Taylor GP, Mullen JB, Benson LN, et al. Endocardial fibroelastosis associated with maternal anti-Ro and anti-La antibodies in the absence of atrioventricular block. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40:796–802.
28. Brucato A, Cimaz R, Catelli L, Meroni P. Anti-Ro-associated sinus bradycardia in newborns. Circulation. 2000;102:E88–9.
29. Cimaz R, Stramba-Badiale M, Brucato A, Catelli L, Panzeri P, Meroni PL. QT interval prolongation in asymptomatic anti-SSA/Ro-positive infants without congenital heart block. Arthritis Rheum. 2000;43:1049–53.
30. Costedoat-Chalumeau N, Amoura Z, Lupoglazoff JM, Huong DL, Denjoy I, Vauthier D, et al. Outcome of pregnancies in patients with anti-SSA/Ro antibodies: a study of 165 pregnancies, with special focus on electrocardiographic variations in the children and comparison with a control group. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50:3187–94.
31. Friedman DM, Kim MY, Copel JA, Davis C, Phoon CK, Glickstein JS, et al. Utility of cardiac monitoring in fetuses at risk for congenital heart block: the PR Interval and Dexamethasone Evaluation (PRIDE) prospective study. Circulation. 2008;117:485–93.
32. Cuneo BF, Strasburger JF, Niksch A, Ovadia M, Wakai RT. An expanded phenotype of maternal SSA/SSB antibody-associated fetal cardiac disease. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2009;22:233–8.
33. Waltuck J, Buyon JP. Autoantibody-associated congenital heart block: outcome in mothers and children. Ann Intern Med. 1994;120:544–51.
34. Press J, Uziel Y, Laxer RM, Luy L, Hamilton RM, Silverman ED. Long-term outcome of mothers of children with complete congenital heart block. Am J Med. 1996;100:328–32.
35. Rivera TL, Izmirly PM, Birnbaum BK, Byrne P, Brauth JB, Katholi M, et al. Disease progression in mothers of children enrolled in the Research Registry for Neonatal Lupus. Ann Rheum Dis. 2009;68:828–35.
36. Brucato A, Gasparini M, Vignati G, Riccobono S, De Juli E, Quinzanini M, et al. Isolated congenital complete heart block: longterm outcome of children and immunogenetic study. J Rheumatol. 1995;22:541–3.
37. Martin V, Lee LA, Askanase AD, Katholi M, Buyon JP. Long-term followup of children with neonatal lupus and their unaffected siblings. Arthritis Rheum. 2002;46:2377–83.
38. Sonesson SE, Salomonsson S, Jacobsson LA, Bremme K, Wahren-Herlenius M. Signs of firstdegree heart block occur in one-third of fetuses of pregnant women with anti-SSA/Ro 52-kd antibodies. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50:1253–61.
39.Rein AJ, Mevorach D, Perles Z, Gavri S, Nadjari M, Nir A, et al. Early diagnosis and treatment of atrioventricular block in the fetus exposed to maternal anti-SSA/Ro-SSB/La antibodies: a prospective, observational, fetal kinetocardiogram-based study. Circulation. 2009;119:1867–72.
40. Brucato A, Frassi M, Franceschini F, Cimaz R, Faden D, Pisoni MP, et al. Risk of congenital complete heart block in newborns of mothers with anti-Ro/SSA antibodies detected by counterimmunoelectrophoresis: a prospective study of 100 women. Arthritis Rheum. 2001;44: 1832–5.
24 Gynecological and Reproductive Complications in Primary Sjögren’s Syndrome |
345 |
41. Gladman G, Silverman ED, Yuk L, Luy L, Boutin C, Laskin C, et al. Fetal echocardiographic screening of pregnancies of mothers with anti-Ro and/or anti-La antibodies. Am J Perinatol. 2002;19:73–80.
42. Gerosa M, Cimaz R, Stramba-Badiale M, Goulene K, Meregalli E, Trespidi L, et al. Electrocardiographic abnormalities in infants born from mothers with autoimmune diseases – a multicentre prospective study. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2007;46:1285–9.
43. Gordon P, Khamashta MA, Rosenthal E, Simpson JM, Sharland G, Brucato A, et al. Anti52 kDa Ro, anti-60 kDa Ro, and anti-La antibody profiles in neonatal lupus. J Rheumatol. 2004;31:2480–7.
44. Salomonsson S, Sonesson SE, Ottosson L, Muhallab S, Olsson T, Sunnerhagen M, et al. Ro/ SSA autoantibodies directly bind cardiomyocytes, disturb calcium homeostasis, and mediate congenital heart block. J Exp Med. 2005;201:11–7.
45. Izmirly PM, Llanos C, Lee LA, Askanase A, Kim MY, Buyon JP. Cutaneous manifestations of neonatal lupus and risk of subsequent congenital heart block. Arthritis Rheum. 2010;62: 1153–7.
46. Spence D, Hornberger L, Hamilton R, Silverman ED. Increased risk of complete congenital heart block in infants born to women with hypothyroidism and anti-Ro and/or anti-La antibodies. J Rheumatol. 2006;33:167–70.
47. Llanos C, Izmirly PM, Katholi M, Clancy RM, Friedman DM, Kim MY, et al. Recurrence rates of cardiac manifestations associated with neonatal lupus and maternal/fetal risk factors. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;60:3091–7.
48. Strandberg L, Winqvist O, Sonesson SE, Mohseni S, Salomonsson S, Bremme K, et al. Antibodies to amino acid 200–239 (p200) of Ro52 as serological markers for the risk of developing congenital heart block. Clin Exp Immunol. 2008;154:30–7.
49. Stea EA, Routsias JG, Clancy RM, Buyon JP, Moutsopoulos HM, Tzioufas AG. Anti-La/SSB antiidiotypic antibodies in maternal serum: a marker of low risk for neonatal lupus in an offspring. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;54:2228–34.
50. James TN. Normal and abnormal consequences of apoptosis in the human heart: from postnatal morphogenesis to paroxysmal arrhythmias. Circulation. 1994;90:556–73.
51. Miranda-Carus ME, Askanase AD, Clancy RM, Di Donato F, Chou TM, Libera MR, et al. Anti-SSA/Ro and anti-SSB/La autoantibodies bind the surface of apoptotic fetal cardiocytes and promote secretion of TNF-alpha by macrophages. J Immunol. 2000;165:5345–51.
52. Clancy RM, Buyon JP. Clearance of apoptotic cells: TGF-beta in the balance between inflammation and fibrosis. J Leukoc Biol. 2003;74:959–60.
53.Clancy RM, Neufing PJ, Zheng P, O’Mahony M, Nimmerjahn F, Gordon TP, et al. Impaired clearance of apoptotic cardiocytes is linked to anti-SSA/Ro and -SSB/La antibodies in the pathogenesis of congenital heart block. J Clin Invest. 2006;116:2413–22.
54.Clancy RM, Backer CB, Yin X, Kapur RP, Molad Y, Buyon JP. Cytokine polymorphisms and
histologic expression in autopsy studies: contribution of TNF-alpha and TGF-beta 1 to the pathogenesis of autoimmune-associated congenital heart block. J Immunol. 2003;171:3253–61.
55. Jaeggi ET, Fouron JC, Silverman ED, Ryan G, Smallhorn J, Hornberger LK. Transplacental fetal treatment improves the outcome of prenatally diagnosed complete atrioventricular block without structural heart disease. Circulation. 2004;110:1542–8.
56. Theander E, Brucato A, Gudmundsson S, Salomonsson S, Wahren-Herlenius M, Manthorpe R. Primary Sjogren’s syndrome – treatment of fetal incomplete atrioventricular block with dexamethasone. J Rheumatol. 2001;28:373–6.
57. Saleeb S, Copel J, Friedman D, Buyon JP. Comparison of treatment with fluorinated glucocorticoids to the natural history of autoantibody-associated congenital heart block: retrospective review of the research registry for neonatal lupus. Arthritis Rheum. 1999;42:2335–45.
58. Lopes LM, Tavares GM, Damiano AP, Lopes MA, Aiello VD, Schultz R, et al. Perinatal outcome of fetal atrioventricular block: one-hundred-sixteen cases from a single institution. Circulation. 2008;118:1268–75.
346 |
A.V. Goules and A.G. Tzioufas |
59. Breur JM, Visser GH, Kruize AA, Stoutenbeek P, Meijboom EJ. Treatment of fetal heart block with maternal steroid therapy: case report and review of the literature. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2004;24:467–72.
60. Brucato A, Astori MG, Cimaz R, Villa P, Li Destri M, Chimini L, et al. Normal neuropsychological development in children with congenital complete heart block who may or may not be exposed to high-dose dexamethasone in utero. Ann Rheum Dis. 2006;65:1422–6.
61. Kaaja R, Julkunen H. Prevention of recurrence of congenital heart block with intravenous immunoglobulin and corticosteroid therapy: comment on the editorial by Buyon et al. Arthritis Rheum. 2003;48:280–1; author reply 281–282.
62. Kaaja R, Julkunen H, Ammala P, Teppo AM, Kurki P. Congenital heart block: successful prophylactic treatment with intravenous gamma globulin and corticosteroid therapy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1991;165:1333–4.
63. Pisoni CN, Brucato A, Ruffatti A, Espinosa G, Cervera R, Belmonte-Serrano M, et al. Failure of intravenous immunoglobulin to prevent congenital heart block: findings of a multicenter, prospective, observational study. Arthritis Rheum. 2010;62:1147–52.
64. Friedman DM, Llanos C, Izmirly PM, Brock B, Byron J, Copel J, et al. Evaluation of fetuses in a study of intravenous immunoglobulin as preventive therapy for congenital heart block: results of a multicenter, prospective, open-label clinical trial. Arthritis Rheum. 2010;62: 1138–46.
65. Matsubara S, Morimatsu Y, Shiraishi H, Kuwata T, Ohkuchi A, Izumi A, et al. Fetus with heart failure due to congenital atrioventricular block treated by maternally administered ritodrine. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2008;278:85–8.
66. Izmirly PM, Kim MY, Llanos C, Le PU, Guerra MM, Askanase AD, et al. Evaluation of the risk of anti-SSA/Ro-SSB/La antibody-associated cardiac manifestations of neonatal lupus in fetuses of mothers with systemic lupus erythematosus exposed to hydroxychloroquine. Ann Rheum Dis. 2010;69(10):1827–30.
67. Routsias JG, Kyriakidis NC, Friedman DM, Llanos C, Clancy R, Moutsopoulos HM, Buyon J, Tzioufas AG. Association of idiotypic/anti-idiotypic antibody ratio with therapeutic response of IVIG in the prevention of recurrent autoimmune associated congenital heart block. Arthritis Rheum. 2011 May 25. doi: 10.1002/art.30464. [Epub ahead of print]
Chapter 25
Laboratory Abnormalities
in Primary Sjögren’s Syndrome
Pilar Brito-Zerón, Roberto Pérez-Alvarez, Marta Pérez-de-Lis, Carmen Hidalgo-Tenorio, and Manuel Ramos-Casals
Contents
25.1 |
Introduction................................................................................................................. |
348 |
|
25.2 |
Serum Proteins ............................................................................................................ |
348 |
|
|
25.2.1 |
Acute Phase Reactants .................................................................................... |
348 |
|
25.2.2 |
Gammaglobulins ............................................................................................. |
349 |
|
25.2.3 |
b2-Microglobulin............................................................................................. |
352 |
25.3 |
Hematological Abnormalities .................................................................................... |
353 |
|
|
25.3.1 |
Normocytic Anemia........................................................................................ |
353 |
|
25.3.2 |
Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia .................................................................... |
354 |
|
25.3.3 |
Aplastic Anemia.............................................................................................. |
355 |
|
25.3.4 |
Pure Red Cell Aplasia ..................................................................................... |
355 |
|
25.3.5 |
Myelodysplasia ............................................................................................... |
356 |
|
25.3.6 |
Pernicious Anemia .......................................................................................... |
356 |
|
25.3.7 |
Leukopenia...................................................................................................... |
356 |
|
25.3.8 |
Lymphopenia................................................................................................... |
357 |
|
25.3.9 |
Neutropenia..................................................................................................... |
358 |
|
25.3.10 |
Eosinophilia .................................................................................................... |
360 |
|
25.3.11 |
Thrombocytopenia .......................................................................................... |
360 |
25.4 |
Conclusions.................................................................................................................. |
360 |
|
References.............................................................................................................................. |
. |
361 |
|
P. Brito-Zerón • M. Ramos-Casals (*)
Sjögren Syndrome Research Group (AGAUR), Laboratory of Autoimmune Diseases Josep Font, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Department of Autoimmune Diseases, Hospital Clínic, Barcelona, Spain
R. Pérez-Alvarez • M. Pérez-de-Lis
Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital Meixoeiro, Vigo, Spain
C. Hidalgo-Tenorio
Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital Virgen de las Nieves, Granada, Spain
M. Ramos-Casals et al. (eds.), Sjögren’s Syndrome, |
347 |
DOI 10.1007/978-0-85729-947-5_25, © Springer-Verlag London Limited 2012 |
|
