Ординатура / Офтальмология / Английские материалы / Ophthalmic Medications and Pharmacology_Duvall, Kershner_2006

Chapter 8

Nonsteroidal

Anti-Inflammatory

Drugs (NSAIDs)

K E Y P O I N T S

•NSAIDs are generally less potent anti-inflammatory agents than corticosteroids and have fewer adverse effects. This makes them a better alternative where chronic use is indicated.

•Oral NSAIDs are readily available and are effective for reducing pain, fever, and inflammation arising from a variety of causes.

•Acetaminophen, though classified with the NSAIDs and used in reducing pain and fever, has no anti-inflammatory effect.

•Topical NSAIDs work very well in reducing the pain associated with corneal injuries such as an abrasion or keratorefractive surgery.

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Turn on the television, and you will recognize athletes and celebrities proclaiming the benefits of these “wonder drugs.” Known as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), the brand names are known instantly: Bayer®, Bufferin®, Tylenol®, Advil®, and the list goes on.

Derivatives of aspirin, the NSAIDs are probably the most commonly administered drugs. In tablet form, they can be purchased OTC or by prescription for use in many conditions. Now, topical NSAIDs are quickly gaining acceptance and popularity for their effectiveness in ophthalmic practice.

Systemically, NSAIDs decrease fever, pain, and inflammation. In the last chapter, we discussed the process of inflammation. (You may want to glance at Figure 7-1 to review.) Both corticosteroids and NSAIDs reduce inflammation. Whereas corticosteroids act in a general manner to decrease production of several biochemicals, NSAIDs specifically reduce the production of the prostaglandins. This is accomplished by inhibiting a specific substance called cyclooxygenase, which is needed to make prostaglandins. The action of the NSAIDs is, thus, much more specific; other routes are not affected and are available to respond as needed.

Fever is one result of inflammation. The increasing temperature speeds up the body’s metabolism, enabling the body to fight disease and repair injury. NSAIDs act to lower elevated body temperature. This is known as an antipyretic effect, which corticosteroids do not have. NSAIDs do not lower body temperature unless there is a fever.

The role of NSAIDs in reducing pain is not yet completely understood. However, it has been shown that the pain-reducing effect, called analgesia, is not linked to the anti-inflammatory effect; that is, the dose needed to decrease pain is less than that needed to decrease inflammation. Lastly, NSAIDs also inhibit the blood’s ability to clot and prolong bleeding time. This effect is best known by the well-publicized role of aspirin in reducing the chance of stroke and second heart attack.

Compared with the corticosteroids, NSAIDs are less potent. In turn, they have fewer side effects and fewer adverse reactions. Due to their specific mode of action, many concerns of corticosteroid therapy, such as adrenocortical insufficiency, are not present with NSAIDs. The most common adverse effects are gastrointestinal in nature: stomach upset, vomiting, and ulceration. NSAIDs may also induce kidney dysfunction and promote asthma. These therapeutics must be used with care in patients susceptible to these complications and those with reduced clotting ability.

What the Patient Needs to Know

•Use oral NSAIDs with caution if you have stomach or digestive problems or are susceptible to prolonged bleeding.

•Acetaminophen has no anti-inflammatory effect but is good for pain and fever.

•Aspirin should not be used in teens or adolescents with flulike symptoms. (Acetaminophen is a good alternative.)

•NSAID eye drops sting when you put them in.

Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) 65

Table 8-1

Selected Oral NSAIDs

Nonprescription NSAIDs are effective in reducing the normal joint and muscle pain after strenuous activity and aid in the relief of flulike symptoms and headache. In stronger doses, NSAIDs are used to treat chronic inflammation associated with conditions like rheumatoid arthritis and lupus.

Due to their anti-inflammatory properties, both oral and topical NSAIDs should never be used alone in the presence of an acute infection because they can dangerously mask and aid the infection’s progress.

Oral Administration

The indications for orally administered NSAIDs in ophthalmic practice are few. These agents are mostly used for relief of mild to moderate pain after ocular surgery. They are generally not effective for significantly reducing the pain associated with corneal injury. NSAIDs are available by prescription in combination with narcotics for additional pain relief. Orally and topically, NSAIDs may be useful for treating idiopathic central serous chorioretinopathy (ICSC) and cystoid macular edema (CME); these are inflammatory conditions resulting in fluid accumulation in the retina.

Though all NSAIDs are pharmacologically similar and have like actions, they possess slightly different characteristics, which set them apart from one another. Some of the more commonly prescribed oral NSAIDs for ophthalmic use are aspirin, ibuprofen, ketorolac, acetaminophen, and indomethacin (Table 8-1). Having these and many other agents at our disposal, the proper selection of a drug is based on their slightly varied characteristics, physician preference and familiarity, the condition being treated, and the desired effect.

Aspirin

Aspirin is the oldest and most well known of all the NSAIDs, and it is considered the standard measure for all drugs in this class. It possesses the anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and analgesic properties common to these drugs. Aspirin does have a high incidence of adverse effects, most commonly gastrointestinal disorders. However, its track record and effectiveness maintains

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its popularity. Aspirin should not be administered to adolescents or teens with flulike symptoms due to its association with Reye’s syndrome, a potentially fatal condition.

Acetaminophen

Acetaminophen (Tylenol®) is technically not a true NSAID because it possesses no antiinflammatory activity. It is a weak prostaglandin inhibitor but has considerable ability to reduce pain and fever; thus, it has been grouped with the NSAIDs. Acetaminophen is a very safe drug when taken in recommended doses, having very few side effects or adverse reactions. It is a very good alternative to aspirin and other NSAIDs in reducing pain and fever, when those drugs are contraindicated.

Ibuprofen

Ibuprofen is another commonly administered drug. It has similar anti-inflammatory and adverse effects as aspirin. Like all NSAIDs, it can prolong bleeding time and should be used cautiously in susceptible patients. The tendency to reduce clotting is, however, less than that exhibited by aspirin.

Indomethacin

Indomethacin deserves special mention because of its history in treating various ocular conditions. It has proven effective in reducing inflammation associated with some cases of CME, ICSC, uveitis, and optic neuritis. Its usefulness in the treatment of these conditions has not been fully established, and it is not universally accepted. In other conditions, there are better options available. Indomethacin is a very potent inhibitor of prostaglandins and is extremely effective. Added to its effectiveness is a high rate of adverse reactions—more than any other of its counterparts. Nausea, gastrointestinal complications, and central nervous system disorders (such as dizziness, headache, depression, and fatigue) are not uncommon. It has been estimated that up to 50% of patients on indomethacin therapy experience adverse reactions; 20% must discontinue use as a result.

Ketorolac

Finally, ketorolac has an increased analgesic effect that some clinicians say rivals the acetaminophen/narcotic combination. The increased analgesic effect of ketolorac may be potent enough to significantly diminish the pain associated with corneal injuries, abrasions, and various keratopathies. However, it should not be used for more than 15 days due to the severity of possible side effects.

Topical administration of NSAIDs has been approved for 3 clinical implications in ophthalmic care: the reduction of postoperative inflammation, the relief of itching in allergic conjunctivitis, and the prevention of pupillary miosis during surgery. Topical NSAIDs have also been proven effective in reducing the pain of corneal surgery and may have a role in other ocular inflammatory conditions. Though each has specific approved uses, all have similar activities. No doubt, as we learn and understand more about these relatively new ophthalmic drugs, their indications will grow.

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Topical use of NSAIDs is relatively free of adverse effects, the exception being stinging on instillation. Unlike corticosteroids, there does not appear to be significant elevation in IOP, even following prolonged treatment. Again, caution must be exercised in patients where prolonged bleeding could lead to complications, such as the formation of hyphema.

Flurbiprofen sodium 0.03% (Ocufen®) and suprofen (Profenal®) are similar topical NSAIDs. The main indication for each is the inhibition of miosis during intraocular surgery. As a result of trauma, surgery in this case, prostaglandins are released within the eye, producing a miotic response. Ocufen and Profenal block prostaglandin release and prohibit the unwanted miosis. Though officially approved only for prevention of miosis, Ocufen has been used in cases of mild uveitis, postsurgical inflammation, and the treatment of CME with varied success.

Ocufen is administered as a single drop every 30 minutes for 2 hours before surgery. Administration of Profenal begins the day before surgery: 2 drops every 4 hours. On the day of surgery, 2 drops are placed in the eye 3, 2, and 1 hour(s) before the procedure.

Diclofenac

Diclofenac ophthalmic solution 0.1% (Voltaren®) has been approved for the treatment of postoperative inflammation after cataract surgery. No other topical NSAID is as effective at inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis. Voltaren also works well in the management of corneal pain. It is often used before patching a corneal abrasion or in conjunction with an antibiotic when patching is not necessary. Diclofenac is also becoming incorporated into the standard protocol after keratorefractive surgery (particularly photorefractive keratectomy). In this case, 1 or 2 drops are instilled into the eye before surgery and then 4 times daily until the cornea is re-epithe- lialized. After cataract surgery, standard application is 1 drop 4 times daily beginning 24 hours postoperatively and sustained over a period of 2 weeks. Transient burning is reported in up to 15% of patients treated.

Ketorolac

Ketorolac tromethamine 0.5% solution (Acular®) is the only topical NSAID approved for use in treating the itching associated with allergic conjunctivitis. Due to its safety when compared to the corticosteroids, it is becoming the first choice of many when treating mild or moderate itching. For this application, Acular is instilled 4 times daily. Though its efficacy beyond 1 week has not been studied, clinical experience has shown no decrease in effectiveness or increase in adverse reaction over a course of several weeks. Transient stinging is common, reported in up to 40% of patients.

Acular, like the other topical NSAIDs, is clinically effective in managing corneal pain. It is reported that Acular’s ability to reduce pain and itch may stem from an ability to raise the sensory threshold. In other words, sensitivity to the painful stimulus is lessened to the point where it is no longer bothersome and the eye feels “normal.” When used after corneal injury or surgery, Acular significantly reduces patient discomfort. Over time, this use as an analgesic may emerge as the major ophthalmic role of these agents.

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Bibliography

Barlett JD, Jaanus SD. Clinical Ocular Pharmacology. 2nd ed. Stoneham, Mass: Butterworths; 1980. Ellis PP. Ocular Therapeutics and Pharmacology. 6th ed. St. Louis, Mo: CV Mosby; 1981.

Kumar V, Cotran RS, Robbins SC. Basic Pathology. 5th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders; 1992. Marielo EN. Human Anatomy & Physiology. Redwood City, Calif: Benjamin/Cummings Publishing; 1980. Melton R, Thomas R. 4th Annual guide to therapeutic drugs. Optometric Management. May 1995.

Moses RA, Hart WH Jr. Adler’s Physiology of the Eye: Clinical Application. 5th ed. St. Louis, Mo: CV Mosby; 1987.

Onofrey BE. Clinical Optometric Pharmacology and Therapeutics. Philadelphia, Pa: JB Lippincott; 1992.

Ophthalmic Drug Facts. St. Louis, Mo: JB Lippincott; 1990.

PDR for Ophthalmology. 23rd ed. Montauk, NJ: Medical Economics; 1995.

Shenan PW. A practical guide to allergy medications. Review of Ophthalmology. 1996; 3(3):112-117. Silverman HM, ed. The Pill Book. 6th ed. New York, NY: Bantam Books; 1994.

Chapter 9

Anesthetics

K E Y P O I N T S

•Anesthetics relieve pain by numbing nerve impulses.

•There are 3 groups of anesthetics: general, regional, and local.

•There are 2 routes of administration for regional and local anesthetics: injection and topical application.

•There are 2 chemical groups of anesthetics: amides and esters.

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Anesthesia usually produces blockage of the sensation of pain. However, the ability to move and sensation of pressure may still exist. Accordingly, many surgeons choose to use supplemental sedation, such as anxiolytics or hypnotics, to increase the effectiveness of the local anesthetic. These may be administered orally before surgery or intravenously at the time of surgery.

Injection

Typically, one of the amide anesthetics is combined with a longer-acting ester anesthetic to provide long-acting motor and sensory anesthesia. These mixtures can be injected directly into the muscle cone of the orbit, blocking the motor and sensory nerves of the eye. Injection of anesthetic can also be given directly into the orbicularis muscles of the eyelid (Van Lint block), into the