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Subject Index

Absolute maps, corneal topography, 71 AD conversion, 127

Additional lighting, 22–25 Adobe Photoshop CS, 36 Aliasing, 127

American Standards Association (ASA), 128

Analogue camera, 8 Analogue transfer, 14–15 Annotation, 33–34 ANSI, 127

Anterior chamber, imaging considerations, 108–109, 110

Anterior eye imaging, 4, 48–79 automatic objective grading, 48 compression, 38

computerized tomography, 79 confocal microscopy, 73–74 corneal topography see Corneal

topography 3-D imaging, 68

magnetic resonance imaging, 79–80 movie formats, 40

objective image grading, 67, 68 optical coherence tomography,

74–76

Scheimpﬂug technique, 68, 69

slit-lamp biomicroscope systems see Slit-lamp biomicroscope

ultrasonography, 77, 78

see also speciﬁc indications/techniques

Anterior segment imaging, 49 Aperture, 20, 21, 22, 128, 138, 142 Archiving, bitmap ﬁles, 37

Artefact, 128

see also Noise; Signal-to-noise ratio Artiﬁcial neural networks, 113

ASA, 128 A scan, 76 ASCII, 128

Aspect ratio, 128 Asphericity index, 72 Attachment, 128 Audio compression, 41

Audio Video Interleave (AVI), 40–41 Autofocus (AF), 129

Automatic exposure (AE), 129

AVI (Audio Video Interleave), 40–41 Axial curvature, corneal topography, 71

Bandwidth, 129

Baud, 129

Bayer pattern, 11–12, 129

Bayonet lens mount, 129

Subject Index

	Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC), 15	Central processing unit, 134
164	Beam splitter, 51–53	Charge-coupled devices (CCDs), 2, 9,
164	Bios, 127	10, 97, 131
	Bios, 127	10, 97, 131
	Bitmap ﬁles, 35, 37–39, 130	Chroma, 132
	Bitmap ﬁles, 35, 37–39, 130	Chroma, 132
	Bits, deﬁnition, 130	CMOS (complementary metal oxide
	Black deposits, ﬁlm, 8	semiconductors), 2, 9, 10, 132
	Blepharospasm, 108	C-mount, 132
	Blood vessel enhancement, fundus	CMYK, 132
	photography, 85	Cobblestone degeneration, 95
	Blooming, 130	Codec, 42
	Blue light spectrum, 59–60	Colour balance, 132
	Blue/ultraviolet illumination, 22	Colour depth, 40, 132
	BMP (bitmap) ﬁles, 35, 37–39, 130	Colour extraction, 56, 67
	B scan, 76	Colour palette, 132
	Buffer, 130	Colour printing, 25–27
	Bulbar hyperaemia, 48	Colour range, 25–26
	Bus, 131	Colour saturation, 132
	Byte, 131	Colour space, 26, 133
	C	Compact disc (CD), 133
	C	CompactFlash, 133
	Cache, 131	Compatibility, software, 34
	Cameras	Complementary metal oxide
	analogue, 8	semiconductors (CMOS), 2, 9, 10,
	attachments, 50–53	132
	colour space, 26	Compression, 3, 133
	digital see Digital cameras	ﬁle sizes, 39
	fundus see Fundus cameras	image assessment, 38
	non-mydriatic, 83	objective grading, 39
	progressive scanning, 11	patient image databases, 30–31
	single lens reﬂex (SLR) cameras,	resolution changes, 58
	54	retinal images, 37–39
	single matrix, 11–13	slit-lamp biomicroscope, 55
	slit-lamp biomicroscopes, 53–54	software, 34–39
	triple matrix, one shot cameras,	see also speciﬁc formats
	12–14	Computer–camera interface, 16,
	see also speciﬁc types	147–148
	Capacity, 131	FireWire see FireWire
	Capture, 82–83, 131	Computerized tomography (CT)
	Capture button function control,	anterior eye, 79
	32–33	posterior eye, 102
	Capture technology, 11–14	Conﬁdentiality, telemedicine, 120
	Card reader, 131	Confocal microscopy, 73–74
	Care standards, telemedicine, 121	Confocal microscopy through focusing
	Cathode ray tube (CRT), 131	(CMTF), 73
	CCD see Charge-coupled devices	Confocal scanning laser
	(CCDs)	ophthalmoscope, 91

Subject Index

Connectivity, 133	Digital, deﬁnition, 135
Consent, telemedicine, 121	Digital audio tape, 134	165
Contrast, 133	Digital cameras, 8–11, 135	165
Contrast, 133	Digital cameras, 8–11, 135
Conversion, 133	capture technology, 11–14
Conversion, 133	capture technology, 11–14
Cornea	single matrix, 11–12, 13
imaging considerations, 107–108	single vs. triple matrix, 14
topography see Corneal topography	triple matrix (three-chip), 12–14
Corneal topography, 69–72	colour space, 26
accuracy and reproducibility, 71	computer interfaces, 16, 147–148
curvature/power maps, 71	FireWire see FireWire
absolute maps, 71	fundus see Fundus cameras
axial curvature, 71	image storage, 18
elevation, 72	compression see Compression
normalized maps, 71	image transfer see Image transfer
tangenital curvature, 71	light detection methods, 9
errors, 72	charge-coupled devices (CCDs), 2,
topographic indexes, 72	9–10, 97, 131
asphericity, 72	complementary metal oxide
simulated K values, 72	semiconductors (CMOS), 2,
CPU, 134	9, 10, 132
Crop, 134	foveon chips, 2–3, 9, 10
Crystalline lens, imaging considerations,	resolution, 18, 55–56
109–110	see also speciﬁc types
Cup-to-disc ratio, 83	Digital images, 8–11, 135
Cystoid macular oedema, 91	Digital transfer, 15–16
D	Digital zoom, 135
D	Digitizing, 135
DAT, 134	Dots per inch, 135
Database(s)	Download, 136
deﬁnition, 134	Dpi, 135
patient images, 30–31	Duty of care, telemedicine, 121
Data Protection Act, 120	DVD, 136
Data storage, image storage and,	Dye(s)
31–32	ﬂuorescein see Fluorescein dye
Default, deﬁnition, 134	lissamine green, 107–108
Deﬁnition (image), 134	rose bengal, 107–108
Depth of ﬁeld, 134	Dynamic sensor range, 136
Depth of focus, 134	E
Device driver, 135	E
Diabetic retinopathy screening	Economic beneﬁts, teleophthalmology,
fundus cameras, 86	117
pixel resolution required, 87	Edge detection, 67, 68, 97
retinal features, 113	Editing software, 43
teleophthalmology, 119, 124	8-bit dynamic range, 36
DICOM, 118	8MM, 125
Diffuser, 135	Elevation, corneal topography, 72

Subject Index

Emulsion speed ﬁgure, 22

166Encryption, 136 Enhancement, 136 Equalization, 136 Erase, deﬁnition, 136 Euroseal Mark, 120 Exif, 137

Exporting images, 33, 137 Exposure, 137

External light sources, 23–24 Eye-piece attachment, 50–51

Fade resistance, inket images, 27 Femtosecond laser, 75

Field of view, fundus cameras, 87–88 File format, 137

File size, 137 Filter, 137 FireWire, 137

image transfer, 16 video editing, 43

Flash intensities, 24–25 Flash memory, 137 Flash systems, 3, 24–25

Fluorescein angiography, 88–91 hyper- vs. hypoﬂuorescence, 89 scanning laser ophthalmoscope, 91 stages, 89, 90

wavelength emitted, 91 Fluorescein dye

administration routes, 91 excitement wavelength, 88 excretion, 89–90 metabolism, 88

Fluorescein imaging, 57–62 blue light spectrum, 59 diffuse, 63

direct illumination, 63 enhancement ﬁlters, 59 indirect illumination, 65 instillation technique, 61–62

intensity in aqueous solution, 61 Purkinje image, 65, 66 retro-illumination, 64, 65

sclerotic scatter, 65

slit-lamp biomicroscope, 57–62 specular reﬂection, 65, 66 tangenital illumination, 66

see also Fluorescein angiography f-numbers, 20, 22, 138

see also Aperture Focal length, 138 Focus, 138 Formatting, 138

Fourier-transform, optical coherence tomography, 76

Foveon chips, 2–3, 9, 10 Fundus

healthy, 95

photography see Fundus cameras scanning laser ophthalmoscopy see

Scanning laser ophthalmoscopes see also Retina

Fundus cameras, 4, 82–91 ﬁlm vs. digital, 82 ﬂuorescein angiography see

Fluorescein angiography image capture, 82–83, 85, 87 image manipulation, 85–86

blood vessel enhancement, 85 luminance, 84–85

Nidek NM200D camera, 87–88 optics, 19, 83–84

resolution and ﬁeld of view, 87–88

Gain, 138 Gamma, 138–139 Gamut, 139

Gas-permeable contact lens, 58 Gaussian blur, 139

GIF, 139 Gigabyte, 139 Glaucoma

Heidelberg Retinal Tomograph, 93, 95

teleophthalmology, 115 variable corneal compensation

(VCC), 100–101, 101, 102

Subject Index

Gonioscopy lens, 108	fundus cameras, 82–83, 85, 87
Graphic format types, 35	see also Image storage; speciﬁc	167
Greyscale, 139	methods	167
Greyscale, 139	methods
H	Image compression see Compression
	Image compression see Compression
	Image export, 33, 137
Haag-Streit slit lamps, 51	Image grading, objective, 39, 67
Hardware, 8–27	Image import, 33
capture technology, 11–14	Image manipulation
image storage see Image storage	fundus cameras, 85–86
image transfer see Image transfer	software, 33–34
light capture medium, 8–11	Image noise, 11, 144
lighting considerations, 3, 20–25	Image processing, 140
additional lighting, 22–25	Image resolution
aperture, 20, 21, 22, 128, 142	deﬁnition, 140
shutter speed, 20, 21, 148	see also Pixel resolution; Resolution
see also Illumination	Image sensor, 140
optical considerations, 3, 18–19	Image stitching, 4, 86
printing, 25–27	Image storage, 3, 18, 131
resolution, 3, 18	compression see Compression
software control of, 32–33	data storage and, 31–32
see also Cameras; speciﬁc components	movies, 40–42
Heidelberg Retinal Tomograph (HRT),	editing, 42–45
93–97, 95, 96	viewing stored images, 32
Horizontal resolution, 55	see also speciﬁc modes
HSL, 139–140	Image transfer, 14–17
HTML, 140	analogue, 14–15
Hue, 140	camera–computer interfaces, 16,
Hyperﬂuorescence, 89	147–148
Hypoﬂuorescence, 89	FireWire see FireWire
I	delay, 14
I	television video standards, 16–17, 54
Illumination, 3, 22–25	Imaging, importance of, 1–6
additional sources, 23–25	Imaging chips, 2, 19
blue/ultraviolet, 22	Imaging considerations, 106–113
slit-lamp microscopy, 22, 62–66	anterior chamber, 108–109
diffuse, 63	cornea, 107–108
direct, 63	crystalline lens, 109–110
indirect, 65	macula, 111
retro-illumination, 65	optic disc, 111
sclerotic scatter, 65	retinal features, 112–113
specular reﬂection, 65, 66	retinal shape, 112
tangenital, 66	tear ﬁlm, 106
see also speciﬁc sources	see also speciﬁc considerations
Image capture	Imaging systems see Hardware
deﬁnition, 131, 140	Importance, ophthalmic imaging, 2–5

Subject Index

Importing images, 33

168 Information transfer, teleophthalmology, 117–118

Inket images, 27 Intensity, deﬁnition, 140

Interframe compression, 41 Internal slit-lamp unit, 23 International Colour Consortium

(ICC), 26

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) emulsion speed, 22, 141

Interpolation, 141 Inverse square law, 141

In vivo confocal microscopy, 73 ISDN connections, 118

ISO, 22, 141

JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts

Group), 36–37, 39, 141

Jurisdiction, telemedicine, 121–122

Kernel size, 141

Kilobyte, 141

Lagtime, 141 LAN, 142

LCD screen, 142

Legal issues, telemedicine, 119–123 consent issues, 121

duty of care, 121 jurisdiction issues, 121–122 medical abuse, 122

medical record ownership/ conﬁdentiality, 120

negligence issues, 121 prescription issues, 121 reimbursement, 122 relevant Laws/Acts, 122–123 standards of care, 121

Lens aperture (f/) see Aperture Lens (crystalline), imaging

considerations, 109–110

Light capture medium, 8–11 Lighting considerations, 3, 20–25

see also Illumination Light receptor chip, 18 Light sensitivity, 22 Lissamine green, 107–108 Litigation, 123

Local area network, 142 Luminance

deﬁnition, 142

fundus cameras, 84–85 LUT, 142

Lux, 142

Macro lens, 142 Macula, imaging, 98, 111 Maculopathy

grading, 113

OCT imaging, 98–99

see also Fundus cameras; Scanning laser ophthalmoscopes

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) anterior eye, 79–80

posterior eye, 103 Malpractice insurance, 123 Matrix metering, 142

Medical abuse, telemedicine, 122 Medical records

legal issues, 120

patient image database, software, 30–31

Megabyte (MB), 143 Megahertz, 143 Megapixels, 143 Memory cards, 143 Metadata, 143 Metaﬁle, 143

MHz, 143 Microcysts, 55

Microperimeter MP-1, 91–92 Microscope(s)

optics, 18–19

slit-lamp see Slit-lamp biomicroscope MODEM connections, 117–118 Monochrome, 143

Subject Index

Movie formats, 40–42, 54	Peripheral, deﬁnition, 144
editing, 42–45	Peripheral retinal detachment, 95	169
Moving Pictures Experts Group	Peripheral retinal lesions, 93, 95	169
Moving Pictures Experts Group	Peripheral retinal lesions, 93, 95
(MPEG), 41–42, 143	Phase Alternating Line (PAL) video, 17,
(MPEG), 41–42, 143	Phase Alternating Line (PAL) video, 17,
MP3, 42	54
MPEG (Moving Pictures Experts	Phase shifts (polarized light), 100
Group), 41–42, 143	pH of tears, 60
N	Photographic ﬁlms, 8
N	PICT, 144
National Television Standards	Pixel, deﬁnition, 144–145
Committee (NTSC) video, 17, 54	Pixelization, 145
Negligence issues, telemedicine, 121	Pixel numbers, anterior eye imaging,
Nidek NM200D camera, 87–88	55–56
Noise, 11, 144	Pixel receptors, 18
see also Signal-to-noise ratio	Pixel resolution
Non-mydriatic cameras, 83	anterior eye imaging, 55–56
NTSC (National Television Standards	fundus cameras, 87
Committee) video, 17, 54	diabetic retinopathy screening,
Nursing mothers, ﬂuorescein, 90	87
O	Placido topography, 70, 107
O	Plasma display, 145
Objective analysis software, 67	PNG, 145
Objective image grading, 39, 67, 68	Portable document format, 144
Object of interest, 55–56	Portable Network Graphics, 145
Ocular globe, MRI, 80	Ports, 145
Optical coherence tomography (OCT), 4	Posterior eye imaging, 4, 82–103
anterior eye, 74–76	computerized tomography, 102
posterior eye, 98–99	ﬂuorescein angiography see
Optical considerations, 3	Fluorescein angiography
Optical zoom, 144	fundus cameras see Fundus cameras
Optic disc, imaging considerations, 111	optical coherence tomography,
Optics	98–99
fundus cameras, 19, 83–84	retinal microperimeter, 4, 91–92
microscopes, 18–19	scanning laser ophthalmoscopes, 4,
Optos Panoramic200, 93, 94, 95, 112	91, 92–97
Oral ﬂuorescein, 91	scanning laser polarimetry, 4,
P	100–101, 101, 102
P	ultrasonography, 101–102
Palpebral hyperaemia, 48	see also speciﬁc indications/techniques
PAL (Phase Alternating Line) video, 17,	PPI, 145
54	Predictive frames, 41
Patient image database, software,	Prescription dispensing, telemedicine,
30–31	121
PCI (Peripheral Component	Printing, 25–27
Interconnect), 3	Progressive scan, 146
PDF, 144	Progressive scanning cameras, 11

Subject Index

	Projection system, corneal topography,	Retinal reﬂectance, 84
170	69, 71	Retinal thickness analyser (RTA),
170	Plug and play, 145	97–98, 111
	Plug and play, 145	97–98, 111
	Purkinje image	Rose bengal, 107–108
	Purkinje image	Rose bengal, 107–108
	confocal microscopy, 107	S
	ﬂuorescein imaging, 65	S
	ﬂuorescein imaging, 65	Saturation, 147
	specular reﬂection, 106	Saturation, 147
	R	Scanner, 147
	R	Scanning laser ophthalmoscopes, 4,
	RAM, 43, 146	92–97
	Raster scan, 70, 107, 146	ﬂuorescein angiography, 91
	RAW ﬁles, 36, 146	Heidelberg Retinal Tomograph
	Red, green and blue (RGB) values, 37	(HRT), 93–97, 95, 96
	Red-free ﬁlter photography, 112	Optos Panoramic200, 93, 94, 95, 112
	Reﬂectivity proﬁle, 76	Scanning laser polarimetry (GDx), 4,
	Reﬂex camera, 146	100–101, 101, 102
	Refresh rate, 146	Scheimpﬂug technique, 68, 69
	Reimbursement, telemedicine, 122	Sclerotic scatter, 65
	Remote diagnosis, teleophthalmology,	SCSI (small computer system
	118–119	interface), 16, 147
	Resolution, 3	SECAM (Sequential Couleur Avec
	compression, 58	Memoire) video, 17
	deﬁnition, 147	Security, teleophthalmology, 118
	digital cameras, 18, 55–56	Sensitivity specks, 8
	fundus cameras, 87–88	Sepia, 147
	horizontal, 55	Sequential Couleur Avec Memoire
	pixel resolution	(SECAM) video, 17
	anterior eye imaging, 55–56	Serial interface, 147–148
	fundus cameras, 87	Server, 148
	slit-lamp biomicroscopy, 55–56	Sharpening, 148
	Retina	Shutter speed, 20, 21, 148
	detachment, 95	Signal-to-noise ratio
	imaging considerations, 112–113	analogue transfer, 15
	lesions, peripheral, 93, 95	digital transfer, 15–16
	movie formats, 40	optical coherence tomography, 76
	Optos Panoramic200, 93, 94, 95, 112	Silver halide, 148
	pigment epithelium (RPE), 91	Simulated K values, 72
	reﬂectance, 84	Single lens reﬂex (SLR) cameras, 54
	shape, 112	Single matrix cameras
	see also Fundus cameras; Scanning	macroshift cameras, 12, 13
	laser ophthalmoscopes	one shot cameras, 11–12, 13
	Retinal camera see Fundus cameras	one/three shot cameras, 12, 13
	Retinal grading scales, 113	three shot cameras, 11–12, 13
	Retinal microperimeter, 4, 91–92	Slit-lamp biomicroscope, 4, 48–66
	Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), 91	blue light, 60–61

Subject Index

camera attachments, 50–53 beam-splitter, 51 eye-piece, 50–51 integrated, 51–53

camera options, 53–54 choices, 49

ﬂuorescein imaging see Fluorescein imaging

illumination techniques see Illumination

image calibration, 49 light loss, 50 magniﬁcation ranges, 49 optics, 19

resolution, 55–56

yellow barrier enhancement ﬁlters, 61

Slit-lamp unit, internal, 23

Small computer system interface (SCSI), 16, 147

Smoothing, 149

Social beneﬁts, teleophthalmology, 117

Software, 3, 30–45 colour depth, 40 compatibility, 34

compression see Compression control of computer hardware,

32–33

data stored with the image, 31–32 image manipulation, 33

importing and exporting images, 33

movie formats, 40–42 editing, 42–45

patient imaging database, 30–31 viewing stored images, 32

Tagged, 149	171
Tagged Image File Format (TIFF), 35,
149
Tangenital curvature, 71
Tangenital illumination, 66
Tear ﬁlm, 76, 106
Tears, pH of, 60
Tearscope, 106
Telemedicine see Teleophthalmology
Teleophthalmology, 115–125
beneﬁts, 117
diabetic retinopathy, 119, 124
diagnostic accuracy, 124–125
information transfer, 117–118
legal aspects see Legal issues,
telemedicine
purpose, 116
reliability, 124–125
remote diagnosis, 118–119
security, 118
standardization, 123–124
Television video standards, 16–17, 54
Three chip cameras, 12–14
Thresholding, 149
Thumbnail, 149
TIFF (Tagged Image File Format), 35,
149
Time domain optical coherence
tomography, 76
Transfer rate, 149
Transfer speed, 15–16
Triple matrix, one shot cameras, 12–14
TWAIN, 150
12-bit dynamic range, 36