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Файл:Ординатура / Офтальмология / Английские материалы / Ophthalmic Oncology_Esmaeli_2011.pdf
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- •Preface
- •Contents
- •Contributors
- •1 Primary Orbital Cancers in Adults
- •1.1 Lymphoproliferative Disorders
- •1.1.1 Presenting Signs and Symptoms, Histopathologic and Molecular Genetic Characteristics, and Diagnosis
- •1.1.2 Treatment
- •1.1.3 Follow-up
- •1.2 Mesenchymal Tumors
- •1.2.1 Fibrous Histiocytoma
- •1.2.2 Solitary Fibrous Tumor
- •1.2.3 Hemangiopericytoma
- •1.2.4 Other Mesenchymal Tumors
- •1.3 Lacrimal Gland Tumors
- •References
- •2 Nonmalignant Tumors of the Orbit
- •2.1 Presentation
- •2.2 Cystic Lesions
- •2.3 Vascular Tumors
- •2.4 Lymphoproliferative Masses
- •2.6 Mesenchymal Tumors
- •2.7 Neurogenic Tumors
- •2.8 Lacrimal Gland Tumors
- •References
- •3 Pediatric Orbital Tumors
- •3.1 Introduction
- •3.2 Cystic Lesions
- •3.2.1 Dermoid Cyst
- •3.2.1.1 Clinical Presentation
- •3.2.1.2 Imaging
- •3.2.1.3 Histopathology
- •3.2.1.4 Treatment
- •3.2.1.5 Prognosis
- •3.2.2 Teratoma
- •3.2.2.1 Clinical Presentation
- •3.2.2.2 Imaging
- •3.2.2.3 Histopathology
- •3.2.2.4 Treatment
- •3.2.2.5 Prognosis
- •3.3 Vascular Tumors
- •3.3.1 Capillary Hemangioma
- •3.3.1.1 Clinical Presentation
- •3.3.1.2 Imaging
- •3.3.1.3 Histopathology
- •3.3.1.4 Treatment
- •3.3.1.5 Prognosis
- •3.3.2 Lymphangioma
- •3.3.2.1 Clinical Presentation
- •3.3.2.2 Imaging
- •3.3.2.3 Histopathology
- •3.3.2.4 Treatment
- •3.3.2.5 Prognosis
- •3.4 Histiocytic Lesions
- •3.4.1 Eosinophilic Granuloma
- •3.4.1.1 Clinical Presentation
- •3.4.1.2 Imaging
- •3.4.1.3 Histopathology
- •3.4.1.4 Treatment
- •3.4.1.5 Prognosis
- •3.5 Neural Tumors
- •3.5.1 Optic Nerve Glioma
- •3.5.1.1 Clinical Presentation
- •3.5.1.2 Imaging
- •3.5.1.3 Histopathology
- •3.5.1.4 Treatment
- •3.5.1.5 Prognosis
- •3.5.2.1 Clinical Presentation
- •3.5.2.2 Imaging
- •3.5.2.3 Histopathology
- •3.5.2.4 Treatment
- •3.5.2.5 Prognosis
- •3.6 Malignant Lesions
- •3.6.1 Ewing Sarcoma
- •3.6.1.1 Clinical Presentation
- •3.6.1.2 Imaging
- •3.6.1.3 Histopathology
- •3.6.1.4 Treatment
- •3.6.1.5 Prognosis
- •3.6.2 Neuroblastoma
- •3.6.2.1 Clinical Presentation
- •3.6.2.2 Imaging
- •3.6.2.3 Histopathology
- •3.6.2.4 Treatment
- •3.6.2.5 Prognosis
- •3.6.3 Retinoblastoma
- •3.6.3.1 Clinical Presentation
- •3.6.3.2 Imaging
- •3.6.3.3 Histopathology
- •3.6.3.4 Treatment
- •3.6.3.5 Prognosis
- •3.6.4 Granulocytic Sarcoma
- •3.6.4.1 Clinical Presentation
- •3.6.4.2 Imaging
- •3.6.4.3 Histopathology
- •3.6.4.4 Treatment
- •3.6.4.5 Prognosis
- •3.6.5 Rhabdomyosarcoma
- •References
- •4.1 Introduction
- •4.2 Clinical and Radiological Presentation
- •4.3 Staging
- •4.4 Surgery
- •4.5 Chemotherapy
- •4.6 Radiation Therapy
- •4.7 Conclusions and Future Directions
- •References
- •5 Metastatic Orbital Tumors
- •5.1 Introduction
- •5.2 Incidence
- •5.3 Anatomical Considerations
- •5.4 Presentation and Clinical Features
- •5.5 Diagnosis
- •5.6 Treatment
- •5.7 Types of Cancer Metastatic to the Orbit
- •5.7.1 Breast Carcinoma
- •5.7.2 Lung Carcinoma
- •5.7.3 Prostate Carcinoma
- •5.7.4 Melanoma
- •5.7.5 Carcinoid Tumors
- •5.7.6 Other Cancers
- •5.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •6.1 Tumors of Intraocular and Ocular Adnexal Origin
- •6.1.1 Eyelid Tumors
- •6.1.2 Intraocular Tumors
- •6.2 Tumors of Sinus and Nasopharyngeal Origin
- •6.2.1 Squamous Cell Carcinoma
- •6.2.2 Other Tumors of Sinus and Nasopharyngeal Origin
- •6.3 Tumors of Brain Origin
- •6.3.1 Meningioma
- •6.3.2 Other Intracranial Tumors
- •References
- •7 Lacrimal Gland Tumors
- •7.1 Introduction
- •7.2 Lymphoproliferative Lesions of the Lacrimal Gland
- •7.3 Benign Epithelial Tumors of the Lacrimal Gland
- •7.3.1 Pleomorphic Adenoma
- •7.3.2 Other Benign Epithelial Tumors
- •7.4 Malignant Epithelial Tumors of the Lacrimal Gland
- •7.4.1 Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma
- •7.4.2 Other Malignant Epithelial Tumors
- •7.5 AJCC Staging for Lacrimal Gland Tumors
- •References
- •8.1 Introduction
- •8.2 Indications
- •8.3 Surgical Techniques
- •8.3.1 Medial Orbitotomy Approach
- •8.3.2 Medial Eyelid Crease Approach
- •8.3.3 Lateral Orbitotomy Approach
- •8.3.4 Lateral Canthotomy Approach
- •8.4 Possible Indications for ONSF in Cancer Patients
- •8.4.1 Metastatic Breast Cancer
- •8.4.2 Lymphomatous Optic Neuropathy Diagnosed by Optic Nerve Biopsy
- •8.4.3 Adjuvant Therapy in Optic Nerve Sheath Meningioma
- •8.4.4 Papilledema Associated with Brain Tumors
- •8.4.5 Radiation-Induced Optic Neuropathy
- •8.5 Complications of ONSF
- •8.6 Future Research
- •References
- •9 Management of Primary Eyelid Cancers
- •9.1 Introduction
- •9.2 Types of Eyelid Malignancies
- •9.2.1 Basal Cell Carcinoma
- •9.2.2 Squamous Cell Carcinoma
- •9.2.3 Melanoma
- •9.2.4 Sebaceous Gland Carcinoma
- •9.2.5 Other Primary Eyelid Malignancies
- •9.3 Management
- •9.3.1 Evaluation
- •9.3.2 Tumor Excision and Eyelid Reconstruction
- •9.3.3 Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy
- •9.3.4 Nonsurgical Treatment
- •9.3.5 Follow-up
- •References
- •10 Management of Conjunctival Neoplasms
- •10.1 Introduction
- •10.2 Squamous Cell Neoplasms of the Conjunctiva
- •10.2.1 Conjunctival Intraepithelial Neoplasia
- •10.2.2 Invasive Squamous Cell Carcinoma
- •10.2.3 Management
- •10.2.3.1 Local Excision and Cryotherapy
- •10.2.3.2 Treatment of More Advanced Disease
- •10.2.4 Surveillance
- •10.3 Melanocytic Neoplasms
- •10.3.1 Nevus
- •10.3.2 Primary Acquired Melanosis
- •10.3.3 Conjunctival Melanoma
- •References
- •11 Surgical Specimen Handling for Conjunctival and Eyelid Tumors
- •11.1 Introduction
- •11.2 Communication with the Pathologist
- •11.3 Conjunctival Specimens
- •11.4 Eyelid Specimens
- •11.5 Mohs Micrographic Surgery
- •11.6 Summary
- •References
- •12 Neuroradiology of Ocular and Orbital Tumors
- •12.1 Introduction: Imaging and Protocol
- •12.2 Anatomy
- •12.3 Intraocular Lesions
- •12.3.1 Retinoblastoma
- •12.3.2 Uveal Melanoma
- •12.3.3 Uveal Metastases
- •12.4 Orbital Lesions
- •12.4.1 Lymphoma
- •12.4.2 Orbital Rhabdomyosarcoma
- •12.4.3 Orbital Nerve Sheath Tumors
- •12.4.4 Mesenchymal Tumors of the Orbit
- •12.4.5 Orbital Pseudotumor
- •12.4.6 Orbital Metastases
- •12.5 Optic Nerve Tumors
- •12.5.1 Optic Nerve Glioma
- •12.5.2 Optic Nerve Sheath Meningiomas
- •12.6 Lacrimal Gland Tumors
- •12.7 Secondary Tumor Spread to the Orbit
- •12.8 Periorbital Skin Cancer and Perineural Spread
- •12.9 Conclusion
- •References
- •13 Radiation Therapy for Orbital and Adnexal Tumors
- •13.1 Indications
- •13.2 Radiation Therapy Terminology
- •13.3 Radiation Therapy Techniques
- •13.4 Radiation Therapy for Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Eyelid
- •13.5 Adjuvant Radiation Therapy for Ocular Adnexal Tumors
- •13.6 Radiation Therapy for Optic Nerve Meningiomas and Orbital Rhabdomyosarcomas
- •13.7 Toxic Effects of Radiation Therapy
- •13.8 Summary
- •References
- •14.1 Historical Perspective
- •14.2 Presentation and Workup
- •14.4 Genetics
- •14.5 Pathologic Features
- •14.6 Treatment Options
- •14.6.1 General Considerations
- •14.6.2 Enucleation
- •14.6.3 Chemoreduction
- •14.6.4 Subtenon (Subconjunctival) Chemotherapy
- •14.6.5 Unilateral Disease
- •14.6.6 Bilateral Disease
- •14.7 Focal Therapies
- •14.7.1 Cryotherapy
- •14.7.2 Laser Photocoagulation
- •14.7.3 Brachytherapy
- •14.7.4 Thermotherapy
- •14.7.5 Radiation Therapy
- •14.8 Multi-institutional Clinical Trials
- •14.9 Animal Models of Retinoblastoma
- •14.10 Gene Transfer Technology for Treatment of Retinoblastoma
- •14.11 Future Development
- •References
- •15 Management of Uveal Melanoma
- •15.1 Epidemiology
- •15.2 Clinical Features
- •15.3 Diagnosis
- •15.4 Staging and Prognostic Factors
- •15.5 Background Studies
- •15.6 Overview of Management
- •15.7 Brachytherapy
- •15.8 Charged-Particle Radiotherapy
- •15.9 Surgical Techniques
- •15.9.1 Uveal Resection
- •15.9.2 Enucleation
- •15.9.3 Transpupillary Thermotherapy
- •15.9.4 Pathologic Assessment
- •15.9.5 Histologic Examination
- •15.10 Conclusion
- •References
- •16 Uveal Metastases from Solid Tumors
- •16.1 Introduction
- •16.2 Patient Characteristics
- •16.3 Symptoms
- •16.4 Clinical Features
- •16.5 Diagnosis
- •16.6 Treatment
- •16.6.1 Observation
- •16.6.2 External-Beam Radiation Therapy
- •16.6.3 Chemotherapy
- •16.6.4 Plaque Brachytherapy
- •16.6.5 Transpupillary Thermotherapy
- •16.6.6 Enucleation
- •16.7 Prognosis
- •16.8 Conclusions
- •References
- •17 Vascular Tumors of the Posterior Pole
- •17.1 Introduction
- •17.3 Circumscribed Choroidal Hemangioma
- •17.4 Management of Posterior Choroidal Hemangiomas
- •17.5 Acquired Vasoproliferative Tumors of the Retina
- •17.6 Conclusions
- •References
- •18 Reconstructive Surgery for Eyelid Defects
- •18.1 Introduction
- •18.2 General Principles
- •18.3 Eyelid Defects Not Involving the Eyelid Margin
- •18.4 Small Defects Involving the Lower Eyelid Margin
- •18.5 Moderate Defects Involving the Lower Eyelid Margin
- •18.6 Large Defects Involving the Lower Eyelid Margin
- •18.7 Small Defects Involving the Upper Eyelid Margin
- •18.8 Moderate Defects Involving the Upper Eyelid Margin
- •18.9 Large Defects Involving the Upper Eyelid Margin
- •18.10 Lateral Canthal Defects
- •18.11 Medial Canthal Defects
- •References
- •19.1 Introduction
- •19.2 Anatomy
- •19.3 Causes of Obstruction
- •19.4 Evaluation
- •19.5 Treatment
- •References
- •20.1 Introduction
- •20.2 Ectropion
- •20.2.1 Ectropion Due to Facial Nerve Paralysis
- •20.2.2 Cicatricial Ectropion
- •20.3 Entropion
- •20.4 Ptosis
- •20.5 Eyelid Retraction
- •20.6 Periorbital Edema Secondary to Imatinib Mesylate
- •References
- •21.1 Introduction
- •21.2 Anatomic Considerations
- •21.2.1 Orbital Margin
- •21.2.2 Nasal and Paranasal Sinuses
- •21.2.3 The Lacrimal System
- •21.2.4 Maxilla
- •21.3 Repair of Orbital Defects
- •21.3.1 Overview of Approaches
- •21.3.1.1 Maxillectomy with Orbital Exenteration
- •21.3.1.2 Maxillectomy Without Orbital Exenteration
- •21.3.2 Types of Maxillary Defects and Strategies for Their Repair
- •21.3.2.1 Type I Defect
- •21.3.2.2 Type II Defects
- •21.3.2.3 Type III Defects
- •21.3.2.4 Type IV Defects
- •21.3.3 Reconstruction After Orbital Exenteration
- •21.4 Conclusion
- •References
- •22.1 Introduction
- •22.2 Surgical Technique
- •22.2.2 Resection of Optic Nerve in Patients with Retinoblastoma
- •22.2.3 Maintenance of Globe Integrity
- •22.3 Choice of Implant
- •22.4 Management of the Anophthalmic Socket After Enucleation and Radiation Therapy
- •22.4.1 Patients with Retinoblastoma
- •22.4.2 Patients with Uveal Melanoma with Microscopic Extrascleral Extension
- •22.4.3 Patients with Head and Neck Cancer
- •22.5 Evisceration
- •References
- •23.2 Indications
- •23.3 Preoperative Evaluation
- •23.4 Surgical Techniques of Orbital Exenteration
- •23.5 Reconstructive Options
- •23.6 Surgical Complications
- •23.7 Rehabilitation After Orbital Exenteration
- •Suggested Readings
- •24.1 Introduction
- •24.2 Relevant Anatomy
- •24.3 Clinical Evaluation
- •24.3.1 Evaluation of Muscle Function
- •24.3.2 Evaluation of Lacrimal Gland and Lacrimal Drainage System Function
- •24.4 Medical Management
- •24.5 Surgical Management
- •24.5.1 Treatment of Lagophthalmos and Exposure Keratopathy
- •24.5.2 Treatment of Lower Eyelid Laxity and Ectropion
- •24.5.3 Reanimation of the Midface
- •24.5.3.1 Static Reanimation
- •24.5.3.2 Dynamic Reanimation
- •24.5.4 Options for Correction of Brow Ptosis
- •24.5.5 Additional Procedures for Management of Facial Droop
- •24.6 Special Circumstances in Cancer Patients with Facial Nerve Paralysis
- •24.7 Conclusion
- •References
- •25.1 Introduction
- •25.4 Conclusions and Recommendations
- •References
- •26 Lacrimal and Canalicular Toxicity
- •26.1 Introduction
- •26.2 5-Fluorouracil
- •26.4 Docetaxel
- •26.5 Epiphora Associated with Other Chemotherapeutic Drugs
- •26.6 Conclusions
- •References
- •27.1 Introduction
- •27.2 Orbital, Periorbital, and Orbital Teratogenic Side Effects by Individual Drug
- •27.2.1 Busulfan
- •27.2.2 Capecitabine
- •27.2.3 Carmustine
- •27.2.4 Cetuximab
- •27.2.5 Cisplatin
- •27.2.6 Cyclophosphamide
- •27.2.7 Cytarabine
- •27.2.8 Docetaxel
- •27.2.9 Doxorubicin
- •27.2.10 Erlotinib
- •27.2.11 Etoposide
- •27.2.12 Fluorouracil
- •27.2.13 Imatinib Mesylate
- •27.2.14 Interferons
- •27.2.15 Interleukin-2, Interleukin-3, and Interleukin-6
- •27.2.16 6-Mercaptopurine
- •27.2.17 Methotrexate
- •27.2.18 Mitomycin C
- •27.2.19 Mitoxantrone Dihydrochloride
- •27.2.20 Plicamycin
- •27.2.21 Thiotepa
- •27.2.22 Vincristine
- •27.3 Summary
- •References
- •28.1 Introduction
- •28.2 Epidemiology
- •28.2.1 Bacterial
- •28.2.2 Viral
- •28.2.3 Fungal
- •28.3 Pathogenesis and Host Defense
- •28.4 Ocular and Orbital Manifestations of Infection
- •28.4.1 Bacterial
- •28.4.2 Viral
- •28.4.3 Fungal
- •28.4.3.1 Candida Species
- •28.4.3.2 Aspergillus Species
- •28.4.3.3 Other Fungal Species
- •28.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •29.1 Introduction
- •29.2 Ophthalmologic Findings with CN III, IV, and VI Palsies
- •29.3 CN III, IV, and VI Palsies due to Primary Cranial Nerve Neoplasms and Direct Extension from Primary Brain, Brain Stem, or Skull base Tumors
- •29.4 CN III, IV, and VI Palsies due to Metastasis to the Brain, Brain, Stem and Skull Base from Distant Sites
- •29.5 Cranial Nerve III, IV, and VI Palsies due to Head and Neck Cancers
- •29.6 Cranial Nerve III, IV, and VI Palsies due to Leptomeningeal Disease
- •29.7 Other Causes of CN III, IV, and VI Palsies in Cancer Patients
- •29.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •30 Skull Base Tumors
- •30.1 Introduction
- •30.2 Anatomy of the Skull Base
- •30.3 Imaging and Diagnosis of Skull Base Tumors
- •30.4 Skull Base Tumors and Neuro-ophthalmic Correlations
- •30.4.1 Esthesioneuroblastoma
- •30.4.2 Chordoma
- •30.4.3 Craniopharyngioma
- •30.4.4 Meningioma
- •30.4.5 Sinonasal and Nasopharyngeal Tumors
- •30.4.6 Schwannoma
- •30.4.7 Pituitary Tumors
- •30.4.8 Myeloma
- •30.4.9 Paraganglioma
- •30.4.10 Metastases
- •References
- •31.1 Optic Pathway Gliomas
- •31.1.1 Demographics and Presentation
- •31.1.2 Histopathology
- •31.1.3 Imaging and Lesion Location
- •31.1.4 Differential Diagnosis
- •31.1.5 Management
- •31.1.6 Prognosis
- •31.2 Optic Nerve Sheath Meningiomas
- •31.2.1 Incidence
- •31.2.2 Histology and Pathophysiology
- •31.2.3 Clinical Presentation
- •31.2.4 Imaging
- •31.2.5 Treatment
- •References
- •32 Leptomeningeal Disease
- •32.1 Introduction
- •32.2 Epidemiology
- •32.3 Clinical Presentation
- •32.3.1 LMD due to Solid Tumors
- •32.3.2 LMD due to Hematogenous Tumors
- •32.3.3 LMD due to Primary Brain Tumors
- •32.4 Diagnosis
- •32.4.1 Radiographic Imaging
- •32.4.2 Optic Neuropathies in LMD
- •32.5 Treatment
- •32.6 Prognosis
- •32.7 Conclusion
- •References
- •33 Paraneoplastic Visual Syndromes
- •33.1 Introduction
- •33.2 Pathogenesis
- •33.3 Carcinoma-Associated Retinopathy
- •33.4 Carcinoma-Associated Cone Dysfunction Syndrome
- •33.5 Melanoma-Associated Retinopathy
- •33.6 Autoimmune Retinopathy
- •33.7 Paraneoplastic Optic Neuropathy
- •33.8 Diagnostic Testing
- •33.9 Differential Diagnosis
- •33.10 Treatment and Prognosis
- •33.11 Conclusion
- •References
- •34.1 Introduction
- •34.2 NF1 and the Optic Pathway
- •34.3.1 Description and Clinical Issues
- •34.3.2 Evaluation and Management
- •34.4 Intraorbital Optic Nerve Glioma
- •34.4.1 Description and Clinical Issues
- •34.4.2 Evaluation and Management
- •34.5 Chiasmal and Hypothalamic Glioma
- •34.5.1 Description and Clinical Issues
- •34.5.2 Evaluation and Management
- •34.6 Intraparenchymal Astrocytoma
- •34.6.1 Description and Clinical Issues
- •34.6.2 Evaluation and Management
- •34.7 Conclusion
- •References
- •35 Other Optic Nerve Maladies in Cancer Patients
- •35.1 Introduction
- •35.2 Optic Neuropathies Related to Elevated ICP
- •35.2.1 Causes of Elevated ICP
- •35.2.2 Treatment of Elevated ICP
- •35.4 Optic Neuropathies Caused by Drugs
- •35.4.1 Optic Disc Edema Secondary to Drug-Induced Elevated ICP
- •35.4.1.1 Retinoids
- •35.4.1.2 Imatinib Mesylate
- •35.4.1.3 Cyclosporine A
- •35.4.1.4 Cytarabine
- •35.4.2 Elevated ICP Secondary to Cerebral Venous Thrombosis
- •35.4.2.1 Cisplatin
- •35.4.2.2 L-Asparaginase
- •35.4.3 Optic Disc Edema Usually Without Elevated ICP
- •35.4.3.1 Cisplatin
- •35.4.3.2 Carboplatin
- •35.4.3.3 Carmustine
- •35.4.3.4 Vincristine
- •35.4.3.5 5-Fluorouracil
- •35.4.3.6 Cyclosporine A
- •35.4.3.7 Tacrolimus
- •35.4.4 Optic Neuropathy Without Disc Edema
- •35.4.4.1 Fludarabine
- •35.4.4.2 Tacrolimus
- •35.4.4.3 Paclitaxel
- •35.4.4.4 Methotrexate
- •35.4.4.5 Cytarabine
- •35.5 Optic Neuropathies Caused by Radiation
- •References
- •36 Management of Endogenous Endophthalmitis
- •36.1 Introduction
- •36.2 Epidemiology
- •36.3 Microbiology
- •36.4 Clinical Manifestations and Diagnosis
- •36.5 Treatment
- •36.5.1 Bacterial Endophthalmitis
- •36.5.2 Fungal Endophthalmitis
- •36.5.2.1 Yeast Endophthalmitis
- •36.5.2.2 Mold Endophthalmitis
- •36.6 Prognosis
- •36.7 Summary
- •References
- •37 Viral Retinitis in the Cancer Patient
- •37.1 Introduction
- •37.2 Epidemiology
- •37.3 Clinical Features
- •37.3.1 CMV Retinitis
- •37.3.2 Acute Retinal Necrosis
- •37.3.3 Progressive Outer Retinal Necrosis
- •37.4 Treatment
- •37.4.1 CMV Retinitis
- •37.4.1.1 Intravitreal Injections
- •37.4.1.2 Ganciclovir Implant
- •37.4.2 Acute Retinal Necrosis
- •37.4.3 Progressive Outer Retinal Necrosis
- •37.5 Role of Vitreoretinal Surgery in Viral Retinitis
- •37.5.1 Argon Laser Photocoagulation
- •37.5.2 Retinal Detachment Repair
- •37.6 Prognosis
- •37.6.1 CMV Retinitis
- •37.6.2 Acute Retinal Necrosis
- •37.6.3 Progressive Outer Retinal Necrosis
- •37.7 Conclusion
- •References
- •38.1 Introduction
- •38.2 Indications for Diagnostic Vitrectomy
- •38.2.1 Vitreous Biopsy
- •38.2.2 Uveal Biopsy
- •38.3 Preoperative Considerations
- •38.3.1 Thrombocytopenia
- •38.3.2 Anesthesia
- •38.4 Vitreous Biopsy
- •38.4.1 Technique
- •38.4.2 Effect of Vitrector Gauge on Vitreous Sample
- •38.5 Uveal Biopsy
- •38.5.1 Technique
- •38.5.2 Complications
- •38.5.3 Collaboration with Pathology
- •38.6 Pathologic Processing
- •38.6.1 Cytology
- •38.6.2 Interleukin Measurement
- •38.6.3 Polymerase Chain Reaction
- •38.6.4 Genetic Analysis
- •38.6.5 Cytogenetic Uveal Melanoma Studies
- •38.7 Results of Diagnostic Vitrectomy
- •38.7.1 Common Diagnoses
- •38.7.2 Diagnostic Utility
- •38.8 Postoperative Considerations
- •38.9 Conclusion
- •References
- •39.1 Introduction and Epidemiology
- •39.2 Presentation and Diagnosis
- •39.3 Management
- •39.4 Future Considerations
- •39.5 Conclusions
- •References
- •Index
38 Diagnostic Vitrectomy and the Cancer Patient: Special Considerations |
477 |
Fig. 38.3 Vitreous biopsy; note scleral indentation (arrow) to stabilize intravitreal pressure during dry vitreous sample retrieval
38.4.2 Effect of Vitrector Gauge on Vitreous Sample
Experimental models have shown that obtaining samples by vitrectomy causes minimal damage to human cell structure and should not limit cytologic assessment [25]. Conlon et al. [26] found that suspensions of human leukemic cells that were aspirated through a vitrector could not be distinguished from control cells on cytologic assessment. Vitrectomy had no observable effect on cell preservation using membrane filtration or cytocentrifugation techniques. Various aspiration and guillotine vitrector cutter rates even up to 1500 cuts per minute neither alter the yield of bacterial specimens nor affect the clinical utility of vitreous samples [27]. Higher cut rates mildly reduce the fungal yield and significantly reduce leukocyte viability.
The 25and 23-G instruments minimize surgically induced trauma from sclerotomy sites, allow for self-sealing (sutureless) sclerotomies, improve operative efficiency, and hasten postoperative recovery. The absence of sutures prevents suture-based complications such as suture irritation, scleral pigmentary changes, and astigmatism induced by tight scleral sutures [28].
38.5 Uveal Biopsy
38.5.1 Technique
Fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) has traditionally been used for uveal biopsies. For preequatorial tumors, FNAB involves a transscleral approach and a 30-G needle; for postequatorial tumors, FNAB involves a transvitreal approach and a 27-G needle [29]. However, FNAB yields insufficient samples for cytogenetic analysis, and given the recently emphasized importance of cytogenetic testing, transretinal choroidal biopsy (TRCB) with sutureless vitrectomy systems is gaining favor.
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TRCB involves insertion of 25-G infusion port, light pipe, and vitreous cutter cannulae 4 mm from the limbus in phakic eyes and 3.5 mm from the limbus in pseudophakic eyes. To separate the conjunctival and scleral openings, the conjunctiva is mobilized toward the corneal limbus with non-toothed forceps as the port is inserted. If a radioactive plaque is inserted during the same operation, the tumor biopsy is performed after these procedures are completed, with the ports passed through undisturbed conjunctiva. The vitreous cutter is advanced across the vitreous cavity and through the retina into the center of the tumor. Tissue samples are taken by rotating the cutter within the tumor. The vitreous cutter is repeatedly withdrawn from the tumor and flushed with a small volume of vitreous to prevent blockage of the aspiration cannula by tumor fragments. A complete vitrectomy is not performed. The specimen is back-flushed into a sterile specimen bottle through the cutter. Tumor fragments are visualized in the specimen bottle under the operating microscope to confirm that an adequate sample has been obtained.
When the scleral ports are removed, cotton-tipped applicators are used to apply pressure to each entry site and stroke the conjunctiva back into position. The aspirate is placed in a sterile container with an equal volume of 10% neutral buffered formalin. This preparation is then centrifuged. The resulting pellet is embedded in agar, and the preparation is processed into paraffin wax. Sections of the resulting waxembedded cell block are stained with hematoxylin–eosin or periodic acid-Schiff or with immunohistochemical methods.
38.5.2 Complications
One of the authors (GK) observed vitreous hemorrhage in 32 (23%) of 140 cases (personal experience). In most of the patients, vitreous hemorrhage resolved spontaneously over 3–4 weeks, but 25% of affected patients needed vitrectomy to clear the vitreous hemorrhage.
No other intraoperative or postoperative complications were encountered. There are concerns about tumor recurrence or spread after uveal biopsy due to intraocular or extraocular seeding of tumor cells. However, the authors’ experience with primary transretinal resection of 60 uveal melanomas over a 5-year period indicates that tumor recurrence from any seeding is rare [30]. The scleral cannula used with the 25-G system should further reduce any chances of implanting tumor cells into the entry sites.
38.5.3 Collaboration with Pathology
Collaboration with a skilled pathologist is essential to successful diagnostic vitrectomy. After a surgical date and time have been set, a pathologist experienced in
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