- •Dedication
- •Foreword
- •Preface
- •Ocular Allergy Overview
- •The ocular surface
- •Clinical examination
- •Immunopathophysiology of ocular allergy
- •Acute allergic conjunctivitis
- •Vernal keratoconjunctivitis
- •Atopic keratoconjunctivitis
- •Giant papillary conjunctivitis
- •Contact dermatitis of the eyelids
- •Blepharoconjunctivitis
- •Bacterial conjunctivitis
- •Viral conjunctivitis
- •Vasomotor conjunctivitis
- •Ocular examination
- •Ophthalmic procedures and testing
- •Summary
- •References
- •Ocular Mast Cells and Mediators
- •Mast cell mediators
- •Preformed granule-associated mediators
- •Biogenic amines
- •Proteoglycans
- •Neutral proteases
- •Newly generated mediators
- •Lipid mediators
- •Cytokines
- •Mast cell heterogeneity
- •Phenotypic heterogeneity
- •Functional heterogeneity
- •Pharmacologic heterogeneity
- •Ocular mast cells
- •The normal eye
- •Mast cells in diseases of the eye
- •Allergic conjunctivitis
- •Vernal conjunctivitis
- •Giant papillary conjunctivitis
- •Experimental autoimmune uveitis
- •Summary
- •References
- •Allergic Conjunctivitis
- •History
- •Examination
- •Seasonal and perennial allergic conjunctivitis
- •Seasonal allergic conjunctivitis
- •Perennial allergic conjunctivitis
- •Procedures
- •Late-phase reaction
- •Treatment
- •Antihistamines
- •Mast cell stabilizers
- •Lodoxamide tromethamine 0.1% (Alomide)
- •Ketorolac tromethamine (Acular)
- •Olopatadine (Patanol, Pataday)
- •Ketotifen (Zaditor)
- •Nedocromil (Alocril)
- •Pemirolast (Alamast)
- •Azelastine (Optivar)
- •Epinastine (Elestat)
- •Corticosteroids (Vexol, Lotemax)
- •Summary
- •References
- •Vernal Conjunctivitis
- •History
- •Epidemiology
- •Clinical manifestation
- •Conjunctival signs
- •Limbal signs
- •Corneal signs
- •Pathogenesis
- •Laboratory evaluation
- •Allergy testing
- •Conjunctival examination
- •Tear evaluation
- •Ocular challenge test
- •Treatment
- •Mast cell stabilizers
- •Antihistamines
- •Corticosteroids
- •Immunosuppressive agents
- •Other medical therapies
- •Surgical therapy
- •Treatment of secondary infections
- •Hyposensitization and immunotherapy
- •Prognosis
- •References
- •Giant Papillary Conjunctivitis
- •Signs and symptoms
- •Stages of giant papillary conjunctivitis
- •Stage 1: preclinical giant papillary conjunctivitis
- •Stage 2: mild giant papillary conjunctivitis
- •Stage 3: moderate giant papillary conjunctivitis
- •Stage 4: severe giant papillary conjunctivitis
- •Epidemiology
- •Histopathology
- •Coated contact lenses
- •Pathophysiology
- •Treatment
- •Treatment for stage 1: preclinical giant papillary conjunctivitis
- •Treatment for stage 2: mild giant papillary conjunctivitis
- •Treatment for stage 3: moderate giant papillary conjunctivitis
- •Treatment for stage 4: severe giant papillary conjunctivitis
- •Summary
- •References
- •Recognizing marginal dry eye disease
- •Contact lens wear in patients with dry eye
- •The use of therapeutic contact lenses in dry eye
- •The use of contact lenses in a patient with ocular allergy
- •Contact lenses and allergic reactions
- •Managing contact lens wear in the patient with ocular allergy
- •Summary of contact lens use in patient with ocular allergy
- •References
- •Mucous membrane pemphigoid
- •Clinical features
- •Diagnostic studies
- •Disease course and treatment
- •Linear immunoglobulin A disease
- •Clinical features
- •Diagnostic studies
- •Disease course and treatment
- •Epidermolysis bullosa acquisita
- •Clinical features
- •Diagnostic studies
- •Disease course and treatment
- •Ocular pemphigus vulgaris
- •Clinical features
- •Diagnostic studies
- •Disease course and treatment
- •Summary
- •References
- •Seborrheic dermatitis
- •Treatment
- •Vitiligo
- •Heliotrope rash
- •Port-wine stains
- •Xanthelasmas and plane xanthomas
- •Seborrheic keratosis
- •Skin tags
- •Warts
- •Comedones
- •Syringoma
- •Rosacea
- •Lipoid proteinosis
- •Angioedema
- •Contact urticaria
- •Erysipelas
- •Trichinosis
- •Chalazion
- •Hordeolum
- •Nevi
- •Sarcoid
- •Hemangioma
- •Basal cell carcinoma
- •Squamous cell carcinoma
- •Sebaceous carcinoma
- •Malignant melanoma
- •Eyelid dermatitis
- •Atopic dermatitis
- •Contact dermatitis
- •Acute, subacute, and chronic
- •Epidemiology
- •Irritant versus allergic
- •Etiologies
- •Irritation due to mascara and eye cosmetic preservatives
- •Fragrance
- •Irritation due to conjunctival deposition
- •Nail polish
- •Metals
- •Aeroallergens
- •Medications/eyedrops/contact lens solution
- •Paper
- •Plants
- •Histology
- •Diagnosis
- •Herpes simplex
- •Herpes zoster
- •Treatment considerations for the eyelids
- •Eyelid dermatitis
- •Infections
- •Urticaria and angiodema
- •Benign tumors and growths
- •Malignant tumors
- •‘‘Cosmetic’’ lesions of the eyelids
- •Vascular lesions
- •Vitiligo
- •Others
- •References
- •Bacterial conjunctivitis
- •Viral conjunctivitis/herpes simplex virus infections
- •Treatment of infectious conjunctivitis
- •Nasolacrimal duct obstruction
- •Allergic conjunctivitis
- •Neonatal conjunctivitis
- •Congenital glaucoma
- •Uveitis
- •References
- •Ocular Allergy Treatment
- •Ocular allergy treatment algorithm
- •Advisory nonprescription interventions
- •Environmental control
- •Cold compresses
- •Lubrication
- •Contact lenses
- •Decongestants
- •Antihistamines
- •Oral antihistamines
- •Topical antihistamines
- •Topical antihistamines
- •Levocabastine
- •Emedastine
- •Cromoglycate
- •Lodoxamide
- •Pemirolast
- •Ketorolac
- •Multiple action agents
- •Olopatadine
- •Ketotifen
- •Nedocromil
- •Azelastine
- •Epinastine
- •Mizolastine
- •Picumast
- •Amlexanox
- •Topical antihistamines and dry eye
- •Steroids
- •Ophthalmic steroids
- •Intranasal steroids
- •Immunomodulatory agents
- •Cyclosporine
- •Immunotherapy
- •Summary
- •References
186 |
WAGNER & AQUINO |
References
[1]Wagner RS. Ocular allergy: pediatric concerns of ocular inflammation. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 1997;17:161–77.
[2]Morrow GL, Abbott RL. Conjunctivitis [see comment]. Am Fam Physician 1998;57(4): 735–46.
[3]Weiss A. Acute conjunctivitis in childhood. Curr Probl Pediatr 1994;24(1):4–11.
[4]American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Infectious Diseases. Red book: report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 25th edition. Elk Grove Village (IL): American Academy of Pediatrics; 2000.
[5]Steinkuller PG, Edmond J, Chen R. Ocular infections. In: Feigin RD, Cherry JD, editors. Textbook of pediatric infectious diseases. 4th edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1998.
[6]Hara JH. The red eye: diagnosis and treatment. Am Fam Physician 1996;54(8): 2423–30.
[7]Riordan-Eva P, Vaughan D. Eye. Current medical diagnosis & treatment. Stamford (CT): Appleton & Lange; 1996. p. 156–80.
[8]Bodor FF. Conjunctivitis-otitis syndrome. Pediatrics 1982;69(6):695–8.
[9]Co ey JD Jr. Otitis media in the practice of pediatrics. Bacteriological and clinical observations. Pediatrics 1966;38(1):25–32.
[10]Fransen L, Van den Berghe P, Mertens A, et al. Incidence and bacterial aetiology of neonatal conjunctivitis. Eur J Pediatr 1987;146(2):152–5.
[11]Sandstrom I. Etiology and diagnosis of neonatal conjunctivitis. Acta Paediatr Scand 1987; 76(2):221–7.
[12]Sandstrom KI, Bell TA, Chandler JW, et al. Microbial causes of neonatal conjunctivitis. J Pediatr 1984;105(5):706–11.
[13]Gigliotti F, Williams WT, Hayden FG, et al. Etiology of acute conjunctivitis in children. J Pediatr 1981;98(4):531–6.
[14]Weiss A, Brinser JH, Nazar-Stewart V. Acute conjunctivitis in childhood. J Pediatr 1993; 122(1):10–4.
[15]Alrawi AM, Chern KC, Cevallos V, et al. Biotypes and serotypes of Haemophilus influenzae ocular isolates. Br J Ophthalmol 2002;86(3):276–7.
[16]Martin M, Turco JH, Zegans ME, et al. An outbreak of conjunctivitis due to atypical Streptococcus pneumoniae [see comment]. N Engl J Med 2003;348(12):1112–21.
[17]Pneumococcal conjunctivitis at an elementary school–Maine, September 20–December 6, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2003;52(4):64–6.
[18]Gigliotti F. Acute conjunctivitis of childhood. Pediatr Ann 1993;22(6):353–6.
[19]Teoh DL, Reynolds S. Diagnosis and management of pediatric conjunctivitis. Pediatr Emerg Care 2003;19(1):48–55.
[20]Gigliotti F. Acute conjunctivitis. Pediatr Rev 1995;16(6):203–7, quiz 208.
[21]Weber CM, Eichenbaum JW. Acute red eye. Di erentiating viral conjunctivitis from other, less common causes [see comment]. Postgrad Med 1997;101(5):185–6, 195–6.
[22]Dawson C, Sheppard J. Follicular conjunctivitis. In: Tasman W, Jaeger E, editors. Duane’s clinical opthalmology. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott; 1991.
[23]Shiuey Y, Ambati BK, Adamis AP. A randomized, double-masked trial of topical ketorolac versus artificial tears for treatment of viral conjunctivitis. Ophthalmology 2000;107(8): 1512–7.
[24]Syed NA, Hyndiuk RA. Infectious conjunctivitis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1992;6(4): 789–805.
[25]Wallace DK, Steinkuller PG. Ocular medications in children. Clin Pediatr 1998;37(11): 645–52.
[26]Gigliotti F, Hendley JO, Morgan J, et al. E cacy of topical antibiotic therapy in acute conjunctivitis in children. J Pediatr 1984;104(4):623–6.
PEDIATRIC OCULAR INFLAMMATION |
187 |
[27]Lichtenstein SJ, Dorfman M, Kennedy R, et al. Controlling contagious bacterial conjunctivitis [see comment]. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 2006;43(1):19–26.
[28]Wagner RS, Abelson MB, Shapiro A, et al. Evaluation of moxifloxacin, ciprofloxacin, gatifloxacin, ofloxacin, and levofloxacin concentrations in human conjunctival tissue. Arch Ophthalmol 2005;123(9):1282–3.
[29]Ohnsman CM. Exclusion of students with conjunctivitis from school: policies of state departments of health [see comment]. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 2007;44(2): 101–5.
[30]Kapadia MK, Freitag SK, Woog JJ. Evaluation and management of congenital nasolacrimal duct obstruction. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2006;39(5):959–77.
[31]Guerry D, Kendig EL. Congenital impatency on the naso-lacrimal duct. Arch Ophthalmol 1948;39:193–204.
[32]Berk AT, Saatci AO, Ercal MD, et al. Ocular findings in 55 patients with Down’s syndrome. Ophthalmic Genet 1996;17(1):15–9.
[33]Zappia RJ, Milder B. Lacrimal drainage function. 2. The fluorescein dye disappearance test. Am J Ophthalmol 1972;74(1):160–2.
[34]MacEwen CJ, Young JD. The fluorescein disappearance test (FDT): an evaluation of its use in infants. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 1991;28(6):302–5.
[35]MacEwen CJ, Young JD. Epiphora during the first year of life. Eye 1991;5(Pt 5): 596–600.
[36]Crigler L. The treatment of congenital dacryocystitis. JAMA 1923;81:21–4.
[37]Ono SJ, Abelson MB. Allergic conjunctivitis: update on pathophysiology and prospects for future treatment. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005;115(1):118–22.
[38]Welch D, Ousler GW III, Nally LA, et al. Ocular drying associated with oral antihistamines (loratadine) in the normal populationdan evaluation of exaggerated dose e ect. Adv Exp Med Biol 2002;506(Pt B):1051–5.
[39]Giede C, Metzenauer P, Petzold U, et al. Comparison of azelastine eye drops with levocabastine eye drops in the treatment of seasonal allergic conjunctivitis. Curr Med Res Opin 2000; 16(3):153–63.
[40]Bielory L. Ocular allergy guidelines: a practical treatment algorithm. Drugs 2002;62(11): 1611–34.
[41]Hirneiss C, Neubauer AS, Kampik A, et al. Comparison of prednisolone 1%, rimexolone 1% and ketorolac tromethamine 0.5% after cataract extraction: a prospective, randomized, double-masked study. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2005;243(8):768–73.
[42]Biswas J, Ganeshbabu TM, Raghavendran SR, et al. E cacy and safety of 1% rimexolone versus 1% prednisolone acetate in the treatment of anterior uveitisda randomized triple masked study. Int Ophthalmol 2004;25(3):147–53.
[43]Flach AJ, Ja e NS, Akers WA. The e ect of ketorolac tromethamine in reducing postoperative inflammation: double-mask parallel comparison with dexamethasone. Ann Ophthalmol 1989;21(11):407–11.
[44]Juniper EF, Kline PA, Ramsdale EH, et al. Comparison of the e cacy and side e ects of aqueous steroid nasal spray (budesonide) and allergen-injection therapy (Pollinex-R) in the treatment of seasonal allergic rhinoconjunctivitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1990;85(3): 606–11.
[45]Del Prete A, Lo redo C, Carderopoli A, et al. Local specific immunotherapy in allergic conjunctivitis. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 1994;72(5):631–4.
[46]O’Hara MA. Ophthalmia neonatorum. Pediatr Clin North Am 1993;40(4):715–25.
[47]Darville T. Chlamydia trachomatis infections in neonates and young children. Semin Pediatr Infect Dis 2005;16(4):235–44.
[48]Woods CR. Gonococcal infections in neonates and young children. Semin Pediatr Infect Dis 2005;16(4):258–70.
[49]Olitsky S, Nelson L. Disorders of the conjunctiva. 16th edition. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co.; 2000.
188 |
WAGNER & AQUINO |
[50]Ho CL, Walton DS. Management of childhood glaucoma. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2004; 15(5):460–4.
[51]Cunningham ET Jr. Uveitis in children. Ocul Immunol Inflamm 2000;8(4):251–61.
[52]Edelsten C, Reddy MA, Stanford MR, et al. Visual loss associated with pediatric uveitis in English primary and referral centers. Am J Ophthalmol 2003;135(5):676–80.
[53]Weiner A, BenEzra D. Clinical patterns and associated conditions in chronic uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol 1991;112(2):151–8.
