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Ocular Periphery and Disorders_Dartt, Bex, Amore_2011

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OCULAR PERIPHERY

AND DISORDERS

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OCULAR PERIPHERY

AND DISORDERS

EDITORS
DARLENE A. DARTT	REZA DANA
Harold F. Johnson Research Scholar	Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary
Schepens Eye Research Institute	Schepens Eye Research Institute
Harvard Medical School	Harvard Medical School
Boston, MA	Boston, MA
USA	USA
PETER BEX	LINDA K. MCLOON
Schepens Eye Research Institute	Department of Ophthalmology
Harvard Medical School	University of Minnesota
Boston, MA	Minneapolis, Minnesota
USA	USA
PATRICIA D’AMORE	JERRY Y. NIEDERKORN
Schepens Eye Research Institute	UT Southwestern Medical Center
Harvard Medical School	at Dallas
Boston, MA	Dallas, Texas
USA	USA

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD

PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, USA

The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK

Material in the text originally appeared in the Encyclopedia of the Eye, edited by Darlene A. Dartt, Joseph C. Beshare and Reza Dana (Elsevier Ltd. 2010)

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system

or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher

Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@elsevier.com. Alternatively you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at (http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions), and selecting

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Notice

No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use

or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN: 978-0-12-382042-6

For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at www.elsevierdirect.com

Printed and bound in Spain

11 12 13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

CONTENTS

Contributors	ix–xii
Introduction	xiii–xiv

I.EXTRAOCULAR AND EYELID MUSCLES: STRUCTURE, FUNCTION, AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

Eyelid Anatomy and the Pathophysiology of Blinking		C Evinger	3
Differentiation and Morphogenesis of Extraocular Muscles		D M Noden	9
Extraocular Muscles: Extraocular Muscle Anatomy	L K McLoon and S P Christiansen		17
Extraocular Muscles: Extraocular Muscle Metabolism		F H Andrade	27
Extraocular Muscles: Proprioception and Proprioceptors		R Blumer	33
Abnormal Eye Movements due to Disease of the Extraocular Muscles and Their Innervation
A Serra and R J Leigh			39
Extraocular Muscles: Functional Assessment in the Clinic		S P Christiansen and L K McLoon	45

II.STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE TEAR FILM, OCULAR ADNEXA, CORNEA AND CONJUNCTIVA IN HEALTH AND PATHOGENESIS IN DISEASE

Tear Film	J P Craig, A Tomlinson, and L McCann							51
Meibomian Glands and Lipid Layer				T J Millar, P Mudgil, and S Khanal				60
Lacrimal Gland Overview			M C Edman, R R Marchelletta, and S F Hamm-Alvarez					68
Lacrimal Gland Hormone Regulation				A K Mircheff, D W Warren, and J E Schechter				74
Lacrimal Gland Signaling: Neural				D Zoukhri				83
Lids: Anatomy, Pathophysiology, Mucocutaneous Junction						T Wojno		91
Overview of Electrolyte and Fluid Transport Across the Conjunctiva							O A Candia and L J Alvarez	99
Conjunctival Goblet Cells			R R Hodges and D A Dartt					108
Ocular Mucins		M Berry						116
Tear Drainage		F P Paulsen and L Bra¨uer						126
Cornea Overview		P Asbell and D Brocks						133
Corneal Epithelium: Cell Biology and Basic Science					M A Stepp			143

vi	Contents
Corneal Nerves: Anatomy				C F Marfurt						150
Corneal Nerves: Function				C Belmonte						158
Corneal Epithelium: Wound Healing Junctions, Attachment to Stroma Receptors, Matrix
	Metalloproteinases, Intracellular Communications						G M Gordon and M E Fini			164
Corneal Epithelium: Transport and Permeability							P S Reinach, F Zhang, and J E Capo´-Aponte			171
Stem Cells of the Ocular Surface					Y Du and J L Funderburgh					178
The Surgical Treatment for Corneal Epithelial Stem Cell Deficiency, Corneal Epithelial Defect, and
	Peripheral Corneal Ulcer				N Koizumi and S Kinoshita					185
Refractive Surgery			S Marcos, L Llorente, C Dorronsoro, and J Merayo-Lloves							193
Refractive Surgery and Inlays					R M M A Nuijts, M Doors, N G Tahzib, and L P J Cruysberg					201
Contact Lenses			N Carnt, Y Wu, and F Stapleton							207
Imaging of the Cornea			S C Kaufman, M Fung, D Raja, and N Kramarevsky							213
The Corneal Stroma			J L Funderburgh							219
Corneal Dystrophies			B H Feldman and N A Afshari							226
Corneal Imaging: Clinical				S Garg and R F Steinert						234
Corneal Scars		D G Dawson								256
Corneal Endothelium: Overview					D R Whikehart					272
Regulation of Corneal Endothelial Function						J A Bonanno and S P Srinivas				283
Regulation of Corneal Endothelial Cell Proliferation							Q Lu, T A Fuchsluger, and U V Jurkunas			290
Artificial Cornea			M A Rafat, J M Hackett, P Fagerholm, and M Griffith							296
Drug Delivery to Cornea and Conjunctiva: Esteraseand Protease-Directed Prodrug Design
	R S Talluri, S Hariharan, P K Karla, and A K Mitra									303
Knock-Out Mice Models: Cornea, Conjunctiva, Eyelids and Lacrimal Gland									W W-Y Kao,
	C-Y Liu, and H Liu									315
Gene Therapy for the Cornea, Conjunctiva, and Lacrimal Gland								A Sharma, A Ghosh,
	C Siddappa, and R R Mohan									327

III.IMMUNE REGULATION OF THE CORNEA AND CONJUNCTIVA AND ITS DYSREGULATION IN DISEASE

Adaptive Immune System and the Eye: Mucosal Immunity			A K Mircheff			339
Adaptive Immune System and the Eye: T Cell-Mediated Immunity				K C McKenna and
R D Vicetti Miguel						347
Innate Immune System and the Eye		M S Gregory				354
Dynamic Immunoregulatory Processes that Sustain Immune Privilege in the Eye					J Y Niederkorn	361
Immunosuppressive and Anti-Inflammatory Molecules that Maintain Immune Privilege of the Eye
A W Taylor						367
Antigen-Presenting Cells in the Eye and Ocular Surface			P Hamrah and R Dana			373
Dry Eye: An Immune-Based Inflammation		M E Stern and S C Pflugfelder				381
Penetrating Keratoplasty	T H Flynn and D F P Larkin					390
Immunopathogenesis of HSV Keratitis		K Buela, G Frank, J Knicklebein, and R Hendricks				396
Immunopathogenesis of Onchocerciasis (River Blindness)			E Pearlman and K Gentil			401

					Contents	vii
Immunopathogenesis of Pseudomonas Keratitis				L D Hazlett		406
Immunobiology of Acanthamoeba Keratitis			J Y Niederkorn			413
Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms in Allergic Conjunctivitis					V L Calder	419
Pathogenesis of Fungal Keratitis		E Pearlman, S Leal, A Tarabishy, Y Sun, L Szczotka-Flynn,
Y Imamura, P Mukherjee, J Chandra, M Momany, S Hastings-Cowden, and M Ghannoum						426
Conjunctiva Immune Surveillance		E Knop and N Knop				431
Defense Mechanisms of Tears and Ocular Surface				A M McDermott		444
Corneal Epithelium: Response to Infection			Elizabeth A Szliter-Berger and L D Hazlett			452
Inflammation of the Conjunctiva		T Nishida				459
Concept of Angiogenic Privilege		B Regenfuss and C Cursiefen				465
Corneal Angiogenesis	M S Cortina and D T Azar					470
Avascularity of the Cornea	R J C Albuquerque and J Ambati					478

IV. VISUAL ACUITY RELATED TO THE CORNEA AND ITS DISORDERS

Pupil	P D R Gamlin and D H McDougal			487
Acuity		M D Crossland		494
Contrast Sensitivity			P Bex	500
Astigmatism		M J Cox		506
Myopia		F A Vera-Diaz		517
Amblyopia		D M Levi		525
Hyperopia		E Harb		529
Index				535

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CONTRIBUTORS

N A Afshari

Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA

R J C Albuquerque

University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA

L J Alvarez

Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York,

NY, USA

J Ambati

University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA

F H Andrade

University of Kentucky Medical Center, Lexington, KY,

USA

P Asbell

Mount Sinai Hospital, Department of Ophthalmology,

New York, NY, USA

D T Azar

University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA

C Belmonte

Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Herna´ndez-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientı´ficas, San Juan de Alicante, Spain

M Berry

Bristol Eye Hospital, Bristol, UK

P Bex

Schepens Eye Research Institute, Boston, MA, USA

R Blumer

Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

J A Bonanno

Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA

D Brocks

Mount Sinai Hospital, Department of Ophthalmology,

New York, NY, USA

L Bra¨uer

Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle,

Germany

K Buela

University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh,

PA, USA

V L Calder

UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, London, UK

O A Candia

Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA

J E Capo´-Aponte

U.S. Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory (USAARL),

Fort Rucker, AL, USA

N Carnt

Institute for Eye Research, Sydney, NSW, Australia

J Chandra

Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA

S P Christiansen

Boston University School of Medicine, Boston,

MA, USA

M S Cortina

University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA

M J Cox

University of Bradford, Bradford, UK

J P Craig

University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

M D Crossland

UCL Institute of Ophthalmology/Moorfields Eye Hospital,

London, UK

L P J Cruysberg

University Hospital Maastricht, Maastricht, The

Netherlands

C Cursiefen

Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuernberg,

Erlangen, Germany

R Dana

Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA

D A Dartt

Schepens Eye Research Institute, Boston, MA, USA

D G Dawson

Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA

M Doors

University Hospital Maastricht, Maastricht,

The Netherlands

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