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Файл:Ординатура / Офтальмология / Английские материалы / Myopia Animal Models to Clinical Trials_Beuerman, Saw, Tan_2009.pdf
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- •Contents
- •Foreword
- •Dedication
- •Message
- •About the Editors
- •List of Contributors
- •Acknowledgments
- •Introduction
- •Methodologic Issues
- •Review of Studies (Table 1)
- •Cohort Effects on Myopia
- •Risk Factors for Myopia
- •Near work
- •Education/Income
- •Outdoor activity
- •Race/Ethnicity
- •Nuclear cataract
- •Family aggregation/Genetics
- •Siblings
- •Parent-child
- •Other family members
- •Genetics
- •Comments
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Definition of Myopia in Epidemiologic Studies
- •Risk Factors for Myopia and Ocular Biometry
- •Family history of myopia
- •Near work
- •Outdoor activity
- •Stature
- •Birth parameters
- •Smoking history
- •Breastfeeding
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Aetiological Heterogeneity of Myopia
- •Clearly genetic forms of myopia
- •School or acquired myopia
- •Misunderstandings of Heritability and Twin Studies
- •But Heritability has Its Uses
- •Evidence for Genetic Associations of School Myopia
- •Evidence for the Impact of Environmental Factors on Myopia Phenotypes
- •Gene-Environment Interactions and Ethnicity
- •Gene-Environment Interactions and Parental Myopia
- •Conclusion
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Economic evaluations
- •Full vs partial evaluations
- •Economic evaluation of myopia
- •The Economic Cost of Myopia: A Burden-of-Disease Study
- •China
- •India
- •Europe
- •Singapore
- •Southeast Asia
- •Africa
- •South America
- •Bangladesh
- •ii. Proportion of myopes paying for correction
- •Uncorrected and undercorrected refractive error, spectacle coverage rate and reasons for spectacles nonwear
- •iii. Amount paid for myopic correction
- •Singapore
- •The burden of myopia
- •Further Directions for Economic Research
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Impact of Myopia in Adults
- •Overall Conclusion
- •Future Studies
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Definition of Pathological Myopia
- •Cataract
- •Glaucoma
- •Myopic Maculopathy
- •Myopic Retinopathy
- •Retinal Detachment
- •Optic Disc Abnormalities
- •References
- •Conclusion
- •Introduction
- •The Association Between Myopia and POAG
- •Information from epidemiological studies
- •Asian populations: Myopia and POAG
- •Myopia in other situations
- •Myopia and ocular hypertension
- •Myopia in angle closure
- •Myopia in Pigment Dispersion Syndrome (PDS)
- •Theories for a Link Between Myopia and POAG
- •Glaucoma Assessment in Myopic Eyes
- •Biometric differences
- •Axial length and CCT
- •Optic disc assessment in myopic eyes
- •Visual fields in myopic eyes
- •Imaging tests and variations with myopia
- •ONH susceptibility to damage
- •The Influence of Myopia on the Clinical Management of the Glaucoma Patient
- •Glaucoma progression and myopia
- •References
- •Posterior Staphyloma
- •Myopic Chorioretinal Atrophy
- •Lacquer Cracks
- •Myopic Choroidal Neovascularization
- •Myopic Foveoschisis
- •Myopic macular hole detachments
- •Lattice degeneration
- •Retinal tears and detachments
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Electroretinography
- •Ganzfeld electroretinography
- •Multifocal electroretinography
- •Assessment of Retinal Function
- •Outer retinal (photoreceptor) function
- •Post-receptoral (bipolar cell) and retinal transmission function
- •Inner retinal function
- •Macular function in myopic retina
- •Effect of Long-Term Atropine Usage on Retinal Function
- •Macular Function Associates with Myopia Progression
- •Factors Associated with ERG Changes in Myopia
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Genomic Convergence Using Genomic Content
- •Pathway Analysis
- •Pathway analysis in cancer genomics
- •Pathway analysis in GWAS
- •Non-parametric approaches
- •Parametric approaches
- •P-values combining approaches
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Definition of Myopia
- •The Classical Twin Model
- •What is the classical twin model?
- •Historical perspective
- •Statistical approaches
- •Twins, Myopia and Heritability Studies
- •Heritability studies for myopia using twins
- •Limitations of using twins in heritability studies
- •Twins and Myopia — Other Studies
- •The Importance of Twin Registries
- •Concluding Comments
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Candidate Gene Selection Strategies for Myopia
- •Genes Associated With Myopia-Related Phenotypes
- •The HGF/cMET ligand-receptor axis
- •The collagen family of genes
- •Concluding Remarks
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Phenotypes for Myopia Genetic Studies
- •Study Design
- •Genotyping and Quality Controls
- •Population Structure
- •Association Tests
- •Correlated Phenotypes
- •Imputation and Meta-Analysis
- •Visualization Tools
- •Drawing Conclusions
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Introduction
- •The Search for Error Signals
- •The blur hypothesis
- •Bidirectional lens-compensation
- •Recovery from ametropia vs. compensation for lenses
- •The complication of the emmetropization end-point
- •Optical aberrations as error signals
- •Other possible visual error signals
- •How Important is Having a Fovea?
- •Mechanisms of Emmetropization
- •Scleral similarities and differences between humans and chickens
- •Retinal signals
- •Glucagon-insulin
- •Retinoic acid
- •Dopamine
- •Acetylcholine
- •Choroidal signals
- •The Role of the Choroid in the Control of Ocular Growth
- •Diurnal rhythms and control of ocular growth
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Gross Scleral Anatomy
- •Structural organization of the sclera
- •Cellular content of the sclera
- •Mechanical properties of the sclera
- •Structural Changes to the Sclera in Myopia
- •Development of structural and ultrastructural scleral changes in myopia
- •Scleral pathology and staphyloma
- •Biochemical Changes in the Sclera of Myopic Eyes
- •Structural biochemistry of the sclera in myopia
- •Degradative processes in the sclera of myopic eyes
- •Cellular changes in the sclera in myopia
- •Biomechanical Changes in the Sclera of Myopic Eyes
- •Regulators of scleral myofibroblast differentiation
- •Myofibroblast-extracellular matrix interactions
- •Cellular and matrix contributions to altered scleral biomechanics and myopia
- •Scleral Changes in Myopia are Reversible
- •Eye growth regulation during recovery from induced myopia
- •Summary and Conclusions
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Spatial Visual Performance and Optical Features of the Eye
- •Axial eye growth and development of refractive state
- •Lens thickness and vitreous chamber depth
- •Corneal radius of curvature
- •Schematic eye data
- •Techniques Currently Available for Myopia Studies in the Mouse, Both for Its Induction and Measurement
- •Devices to induce refractive errors
- •Techniques to measure the induced refractive errors and changes in eye growth
- •Refractive state
- •Corneal radius of curvature
- •Axial length measurements and ocular biometry
- •Measurements of the optical aberrations of the mouse eye
- •Behavioral measurement of grating acuity and contrast sensitivity in the mouse
- •Recent Studies on Myopia in the Mouse Model: Some Examples
- •Magnitudes of experimentally induced refractive errors in wild-type mice
- •Refractive development in mutant mice
- •Pharmacological studies to inhibit axial eye growth in mice
- •Image processing and regulation of retinal genes and proteins
- •Summary
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Introduction
- •A Brief Introduction to Comparative Genomics
- •Comparative Expression
- •Genes in Retina and Sclera in Animal Models of Myopia
- •ZENK (EGR-1)
- •Scleral Gene Expression in a Mouse Model of Myopia
- •RNA, Target cDNA and Microarray Chip Preparation
- •Microarray Data Analysis
- •Scleral Gene Expression in the Myopic Mouse
- •Summary
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Possible Mechanisms of Pharmacological Treatment
- •Efficacy Studies
- •Other Issues Related to Drugs
- •Potential Side Effects
- •The Future of Drug Treatment in Myopia
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Accommodation
- •Close work
- •Physical characteristics of the retinal image
- •Visual deprivation
- •Compensatory changes in refraction
- •Intensity and periodicity of light exposure
- •Spatial frequency
- •Light periodicity
- •Image clarity
- •Outdoor activity and retinal image blur
- •Light vergence and photon catch
- •Chromaticity
- •Therapeutic implications
- •References
- •Index
70 |
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M.C.C. Lim and K.D. Frick |
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Table 4. Prevalence of myopia in the USA |
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Number |
Percentage |
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Number of |
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Age |
of People23 |
of Myopes (%) |
Source |
Myopes |
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0–4 |
20,417,636 |
2.7 |
Baltimore24 |
551,276 |
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5–9 |
19,709,887 |
10.1 |
CLEERE25 |
1,970,989 |
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10–14 |
20,627,397 |
10.1 |
CLEERE25 |
2,062,740 |
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15–19 |
21,324,186 |
15.0 |
Estimated |
3,198,628 |
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20–24 |
21,111,240 |
33.1 |
NHANES26 |
6,987,820 |
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25–29 |
20,709,480 |
33.1 |
NHANES26 |
6,854,838 |
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30–34 |
19,706,499 |
33.1 |
NHANES26 |
6,522,851 |
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35–39 |
21,185,785 |
33.1 |
NHANES26 |
7,012,495 |
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40–44 |
22,481,165 |
33.1 |
NHANES26 |
7,441,266 |
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45–49 |
22,797,569 |
33.1 |
NHANES26 |
7,545,995 |
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50–54 |
20,480,605 |
33.1 |
NHANES26 |
6,779,080 |
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55–59 |
18,224,445 |
33.1 |
NHANES26 |
6,032,291 |
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60–64 |
13,362,238 |
33.1 |
NHANES26 |
4,422,901 |
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65–69 |
10,375,554 |
33.1 |
NHANES26 |
3,434,308 |
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70–74 |
8,541,290 |
33.1 |
NHANES26 |
2,827,167 |
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75–79 |
7,381,027 |
33.1 |
NHANES26 |
2,443,120 |
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80+ |
10,962,481 |
33.1 |
NHANES26 |
3,628,581 |
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Total |
299,398,484 |
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79,716,347 |
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South America
The prevalence of myopia in Brazil27 is similar to that of Europe, with 3.8% in those under 5-years of age and 29.7% in those ranging from 30-to 39-years of age. In Los Angeles Latinos, it is 16.8% in those aged 40 years and above, although this may not be a perfect comparison group as only some Latinos in Los Angeles are first generation immigrants.28 We will assume an overall estimate of population prevalence of myopia in South America of 21%.
Bangladesh
The prevalence of myopia was 22.1% in the over 30-year-olds.29 We will assume that this is the population prevalence of myopia for the purposes of our estimate.
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