- •Contents
- •Foreword
- •Dedication
- •Message
- •About the Editors
- •List of Contributors
- •Acknowledgments
- •Introduction
- •Methodologic Issues
- •Review of Studies (Table 1)
- •Cohort Effects on Myopia
- •Risk Factors for Myopia
- •Near work
- •Education/Income
- •Outdoor activity
- •Race/Ethnicity
- •Nuclear cataract
- •Family aggregation/Genetics
- •Siblings
- •Parent-child
- •Other family members
- •Genetics
- •Comments
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Definition of Myopia in Epidemiologic Studies
- •Risk Factors for Myopia and Ocular Biometry
- •Family history of myopia
- •Near work
- •Outdoor activity
- •Stature
- •Birth parameters
- •Smoking history
- •Breastfeeding
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Aetiological Heterogeneity of Myopia
- •Clearly genetic forms of myopia
- •School or acquired myopia
- •Misunderstandings of Heritability and Twin Studies
- •But Heritability has Its Uses
- •Evidence for Genetic Associations of School Myopia
- •Evidence for the Impact of Environmental Factors on Myopia Phenotypes
- •Gene-Environment Interactions and Ethnicity
- •Gene-Environment Interactions and Parental Myopia
- •Conclusion
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Economic evaluations
- •Full vs partial evaluations
- •Economic evaluation of myopia
- •The Economic Cost of Myopia: A Burden-of-Disease Study
- •China
- •India
- •Europe
- •Singapore
- •Southeast Asia
- •Africa
- •South America
- •Bangladesh
- •ii. Proportion of myopes paying for correction
- •Uncorrected and undercorrected refractive error, spectacle coverage rate and reasons for spectacles nonwear
- •iii. Amount paid for myopic correction
- •Singapore
- •The burden of myopia
- •Further Directions for Economic Research
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Impact of Myopia in Adults
- •Overall Conclusion
- •Future Studies
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Definition of Pathological Myopia
- •Cataract
- •Glaucoma
- •Myopic Maculopathy
- •Myopic Retinopathy
- •Retinal Detachment
- •Optic Disc Abnormalities
- •References
- •Conclusion
- •Introduction
- •The Association Between Myopia and POAG
- •Information from epidemiological studies
- •Asian populations: Myopia and POAG
- •Myopia in other situations
- •Myopia and ocular hypertension
- •Myopia in angle closure
- •Myopia in Pigment Dispersion Syndrome (PDS)
- •Theories for a Link Between Myopia and POAG
- •Glaucoma Assessment in Myopic Eyes
- •Biometric differences
- •Axial length and CCT
- •Optic disc assessment in myopic eyes
- •Visual fields in myopic eyes
- •Imaging tests and variations with myopia
- •ONH susceptibility to damage
- •The Influence of Myopia on the Clinical Management of the Glaucoma Patient
- •Glaucoma progression and myopia
- •References
- •Posterior Staphyloma
- •Myopic Chorioretinal Atrophy
- •Lacquer Cracks
- •Myopic Choroidal Neovascularization
- •Myopic Foveoschisis
- •Myopic macular hole detachments
- •Lattice degeneration
- •Retinal tears and detachments
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Electroretinography
- •Ganzfeld electroretinography
- •Multifocal electroretinography
- •Assessment of Retinal Function
- •Outer retinal (photoreceptor) function
- •Post-receptoral (bipolar cell) and retinal transmission function
- •Inner retinal function
- •Macular function in myopic retina
- •Effect of Long-Term Atropine Usage on Retinal Function
- •Macular Function Associates with Myopia Progression
- •Factors Associated with ERG Changes in Myopia
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Genomic Convergence Using Genomic Content
- •Pathway Analysis
- •Pathway analysis in cancer genomics
- •Pathway analysis in GWAS
- •Non-parametric approaches
- •Parametric approaches
- •P-values combining approaches
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Definition of Myopia
- •The Classical Twin Model
- •What is the classical twin model?
- •Historical perspective
- •Statistical approaches
- •Twins, Myopia and Heritability Studies
- •Heritability studies for myopia using twins
- •Limitations of using twins in heritability studies
- •Twins and Myopia — Other Studies
- •The Importance of Twin Registries
- •Concluding Comments
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Candidate Gene Selection Strategies for Myopia
- •Genes Associated With Myopia-Related Phenotypes
- •The HGF/cMET ligand-receptor axis
- •The collagen family of genes
- •Concluding Remarks
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Phenotypes for Myopia Genetic Studies
- •Study Design
- •Genotyping and Quality Controls
- •Population Structure
- •Association Tests
- •Correlated Phenotypes
- •Imputation and Meta-Analysis
- •Visualization Tools
- •Drawing Conclusions
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Introduction
- •The Search for Error Signals
- •The blur hypothesis
- •Bidirectional lens-compensation
- •Recovery from ametropia vs. compensation for lenses
- •The complication of the emmetropization end-point
- •Optical aberrations as error signals
- •Other possible visual error signals
- •How Important is Having a Fovea?
- •Mechanisms of Emmetropization
- •Scleral similarities and differences between humans and chickens
- •Retinal signals
- •Glucagon-insulin
- •Retinoic acid
- •Dopamine
- •Acetylcholine
- •Choroidal signals
- •The Role of the Choroid in the Control of Ocular Growth
- •Diurnal rhythms and control of ocular growth
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Gross Scleral Anatomy
- •Structural organization of the sclera
- •Cellular content of the sclera
- •Mechanical properties of the sclera
- •Structural Changes to the Sclera in Myopia
- •Development of structural and ultrastructural scleral changes in myopia
- •Scleral pathology and staphyloma
- •Biochemical Changes in the Sclera of Myopic Eyes
- •Structural biochemistry of the sclera in myopia
- •Degradative processes in the sclera of myopic eyes
- •Cellular changes in the sclera in myopia
- •Biomechanical Changes in the Sclera of Myopic Eyes
- •Regulators of scleral myofibroblast differentiation
- •Myofibroblast-extracellular matrix interactions
- •Cellular and matrix contributions to altered scleral biomechanics and myopia
- •Scleral Changes in Myopia are Reversible
- •Eye growth regulation during recovery from induced myopia
- •Summary and Conclusions
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Spatial Visual Performance and Optical Features of the Eye
- •Axial eye growth and development of refractive state
- •Lens thickness and vitreous chamber depth
- •Corneal radius of curvature
- •Schematic eye data
- •Techniques Currently Available for Myopia Studies in the Mouse, Both for Its Induction and Measurement
- •Devices to induce refractive errors
- •Techniques to measure the induced refractive errors and changes in eye growth
- •Refractive state
- •Corneal radius of curvature
- •Axial length measurements and ocular biometry
- •Measurements of the optical aberrations of the mouse eye
- •Behavioral measurement of grating acuity and contrast sensitivity in the mouse
- •Recent Studies on Myopia in the Mouse Model: Some Examples
- •Magnitudes of experimentally induced refractive errors in wild-type mice
- •Refractive development in mutant mice
- •Pharmacological studies to inhibit axial eye growth in mice
- •Image processing and regulation of retinal genes and proteins
- •Summary
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Introduction
- •A Brief Introduction to Comparative Genomics
- •Comparative Expression
- •Genes in Retina and Sclera in Animal Models of Myopia
- •ZENK (EGR-1)
- •Scleral Gene Expression in a Mouse Model of Myopia
- •RNA, Target cDNA and Microarray Chip Preparation
- •Microarray Data Analysis
- •Scleral Gene Expression in the Myopic Mouse
- •Summary
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Possible Mechanisms of Pharmacological Treatment
- •Efficacy Studies
- •Other Issues Related to Drugs
- •Potential Side Effects
- •The Future of Drug Treatment in Myopia
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Accommodation
- •Close work
- •Physical characteristics of the retinal image
- •Visual deprivation
- •Compensatory changes in refraction
- •Intensity and periodicity of light exposure
- •Spatial frequency
- •Light periodicity
- •Image clarity
- •Outdoor activity and retinal image blur
- •Light vergence and photon catch
- •Chromaticity
- •Therapeutic implications
- •References
- •Index
About the Editors
Roger W. Beuerman, PhD
Singapore Eye Research Institute
Duke-NUS
SRP Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders
Ophthalmology
Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine
National University of Singapore
Roger Beuerman is currently Senior Scientific Director of the Singapore Eye Research Institute; Professor of Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders at the DUKE-NUS School of Medicine; Adjunct Professor of Ophthalmology at the National University of Singapore; Adjunct Professor of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering at the Nanyang Technological University; and Senior Scientist at the Bioinformatics Institute. He has more than 20 years’ experience in translational research in ophthalmology. He is an ARVO Fellow; a Fellow of the Alcon Research institute, and the Paolo Foundation in Helsinki, Finland. He has been a Visiting Professor in the Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, the Department of Ophthalmology at the University of Helsinki, and the Department of Ophthalmology of Tianjin, China. He has received many awards, including the CIBA-CVO Research Excellence Award, the Everett Kinsey Award (CLAO), the 2nd Chew Sek-Jin Lecture, Bireswar Chakrabarti Memorial Oration of the Indian Eye Research Group, LA Technology Award, and recently the President’s (Singapore) First Science and Technology Award. He has previously edited books on corneal wound healing and dry eye, has more than 220 publications, and sits on several editorial boards, including Cornea, Ocular Surface, and Journal of Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics.
xix
xx About the Editors
Seang-Mei Saw, MBBS, MPH, PhD
Department of Epidemiology & Public Health
Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine
National University of Singapore
Singapore Eye Research Institute
Seang-Mei Saw is currently an Associate Professor at the Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, and Vice-Dean (Research Preclinical), Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore (NUS). She received her MBBS degree from NUS and both her MPH and PhD from the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. Her primary research interests are related to the epidemiology, genetics and gene-environment interactions for myopia and other eye diseases. She has published more than 200 peer-reviewed articles in international journals, including the Lancet and Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA). She is currently the PI and Co-I of grants totaling >$15 million from the BMRC, NMRC, NIH and NHMRC (Australia). She supervises 30 research staff, 3 post-doctoral research fellows and 6 PhD and MSc students.
Seang-Mei is an Editorial Board member of Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Ophthalmic and Physiologic Optics, and the Annals Academy of Medicine (Singapore). She is the recipient of the Garland W. Clay Award (2006); the Great Women of our Times Award, Science and Technology Category, Singapore (2006); the American Academy of Ophthalmology (AAO) Achievement Award (2009); and the NUS School of Medicine Faculty Research Excellence Award (2009). Seang-Mei was the past Chair of the 11th International Myopia Conference held from 16th to 18th August 2006 in Singapore, and is currently Chair of the Program Committee, Clinical/Epidemiologic section, Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (ARVO).
xxi About the Editors
Donald T.H. Tan, FRCSG, FRCSEd,
FRCOphth, FAMS
Singapore National Eye Centre
Singapore Eye Research Institute
Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine
National University of Singapore
Donald Tan is the Medical Director of the Singapore National Eye Centre (SNEC), Chairman of the Singapore Eye Research Institute (SERI) and tenured professor at the Department of Ophthalmology at the National University of Singapore. He heads the SNEC Cornea and Refractive Services and is also Medical Director of the Singapore Eye Bank.
A corneal and refractive surgeon by training, Professor Tan’s research contributions lie in new forms of lamellar keratoplasty, ocular surface and stem cell transplantation, and artificial cornea surgery, refractive surgery trials, and epidemiological studies on myopia and clinical trials on various approaches to retarding myopia progression. To date, he has published 226 peer-reviewed articles, and contributed 18 book chapters, and has also trained 22 corneal fellows from 13 countries.
Professor Tan was awarded the Asia-Pacific Academy of Ophthalmology De Ocampo Award in 2001, a 2006 AAO Distinguished Achievement Award, and a Singapore National Public Health Award for first identifying and stemming the 2006 global outbreak of contact lens solution-related Fusarium keratitis. In 2009, he was awarded the 2009 Casebeer Award by the International Society of Refractive Surgery (ISRS) and the American Academy of Ophthalmology (AAO), for his contributions to research in the field of refractive surgery.
He is currently Vice-President/President Elect of The Cornea Society, and the founding President of the Asia Cornea Society (ACS) and the Association of Eye Banks of Asia (AEBA).
xxii About the Editors
Tien-Yin Wong, MBBS, M.Med(Ophthl), FRCSEd,
FRANZCO, MPH, PhD
Singapore National Eye Centre
Singapore Eye Research Institute
Department of Ophthalmology
Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine
National University of Singapore
Centre for Eye Research Australia &
Department of Ophthalmology
The University of Melbourne
Royal Victorian Eye & Ear Hospital Australia
Tien-Yin Wong is currently Professor and Director of the Singapore Eye Research Institute, National University of Singapore and Senior Consultant Ophthalmologist at the Singapore National Eye Centre and National University Health System. He is concurrently Professor of Ophthalmology at the Centre for Eye Research Australia, the University of Melbourne.
Professor Wong is a retinal specialist and leads a research program on the epidemiology, impact and treatment of retinal diseases, including diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, and retinal vein occlusion. A particular focus of his work is on early retinal vascular changes and the use of novel retinal imaging techniques to predict cardiovascular disease. He has published more than 400 peer-reviewed papers, including papers in the New England Journal of Medicine, the Lancet, and the Journal of the American Medical Association and has written 3 books that are widely used in ophthalmology.
For his research, Professor Wong has been recognized nationally and internationally with awards not only in ophthalmology, but also in the fields of cardiovascular disease and diabetes. He was the recipient of the Alcon Research Institute Award, the Novartis Prize in Diabetes (Global Young Investigator) award, the Australian Commonwealth Health Minister’s Award for Excellence in Health and Medical Research and the Sandra Doherty Award from the American Heart Association. Prof. Wong is the Executive Editor of the American Journal of Ophthalmology, and on Editorial Board of three other journals, Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Ophthalmic Epidemiology and Diabetes Care. He currently supervises 30 research staff and has previously trained 10 postdoctoral research fellows and PhD students. He is currently supervising 4 PhD students and 4 postdoctoral fellows.
