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<<< < Предыдущая 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 4243 / 4343

Index

α see signiﬁcance level	statistical signiﬁcance 176–7
absolute risk 100–1, 106–7	strength 174, 175–80
absolute risk reduction (ARR) 106–7	see also scatterplots
adjustment	attitudes 77
conﬁdence intervals 136, 137–8	automated variable selection 200–2
confounders 81
goodness-of-ﬁt 196–7, 203	β see type II errors
hypothesis tests 158	backwards elimination 202–3
agreement 181–6	backwards selection 201
association 186	bar charts 31–5, 41, 44–7
Bland-Altman charts 185–6	beneﬁcial risk factors 105
Cohen’s kappa 182–4	bimodal distribution 47
continuous data 184–6	binary data 153, 214–15
limits 185–6	binomial distribution 48, 116
ordinal data 184	Bland-Altman charts 185–6
weighted kappa 184	blinding 86
analysis of variance (ANOVA) 209–11	block randomisation 85
APACHE II scores 33–4	boxplots 41, 61–2, 63
Apgar scores 25–6, 38, 121, 128, 148,	British Regional Heart Study 36
174
arithmetic mean see mean	case-control studies 11
ARR see absolute risk reduction	association 177
assessment bias 86	conﬁdence intervals 137
association 171–80	hypothesis tests 146, 153, 158
agreement 186	matched 81, 82, 102
conﬁdence intervals 179	odds ratios 105–6
correlation coefﬁcients 175–80,	probability 98
183	risk 102–3
deﬁnition 171–2	study design 80–3
linear 172–3, 175	unmatched 81–2
linear regression 190–1, 192	case-series studies 76
negative 172–3	categorical data 4–7, 10
non-linear 173, 175	agreement 184
p values 176–9	association 180
positive 172–3	charts 30–4, 37–8, 40–1

Medical Statistics from Scratch Second Edition	David Bowers
C 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

278

INDEX

categorical data (Continued) conﬁdence intervals 127, 131 frequency tables 18–20, 23–6 hypothesis tests 145, 151, 161–8 linear regression 199–200

numeric summary values 55, 57, 64 ordered 166–8

causal relationships 77, 180, 190–1 censored data 228

chance-corrected proportional agreement statistic 179, 182–4

charts 29–41

bar charts 31–5, 41 boxplots 41, 61–2, 63

categorical data 30–4, 37–8, 40–1 continuous data 35–7, 40–1 cumulative data 37–41

discrete data 34–5, 37–8, 40–1 distribution 44–7

metric data 34–8, 40–1 nominal data 30–4, 41 ogives 38–40, 41, 60–1 ordinal data 30–4, 37–8, 40–1 pie charts 30–1, 41

step charts 37–8, 41 time series charts 40–1 see also histograms

chi-squared test

hypothesis tests 145, 151, 161–8 logistic regression 221, 222 survival 234

clinical databases 240, 241 clinical trials 84

clustered bar charts 32–4 coding design 199–200 coefﬁcient of determination 197 Cohen’s kappa 179, 182–4 cohort studies

charts 36–7

probability 100–1, 102, 104, 106–7 study design 78–80, 83

survival 238 colinearity 198 comparative studies 13

conﬁdence intervals 111–18 agreement 183 association 179

difference between population parameters 119–31

hypothesis tests 117, 119–31, 149, 156, 163 independent populations 120–5, 127–31, 133–4

linear regression 195–6, 198 logistic regression 217

matched populations 125–6, 131 mean 112–16, 120–6, 134 median 117–18, 127–31 Minitab 120, 123, 128

Normal distribution 112–13, 120, 127

odds ratios 134–5, 137–8 proportions 116–17, 126–7

ratio of two population parameters 133–8 risk ratios 134–6

single population parameter 111–18 SPSS 120, 122–3

standard error 112–16 survival 237–8 systematic review 242–3

confounders

linear regression 202–3, 204–5 logistic regression 222

risk ratios 136 study design 81, 84

consecutive sampling 74–5 constant coefﬁcient 191 contact sampling 74–5 contingency tables 25–6

chi-squared test 162–4 logistic regression 221 risk 104

study design 79–80, 82 continuous metric data 7–8, 10

agreement 184–6 association 176, 180 charts 35–7, 40–1 frequency tables 20–2

linear regression 193, 194, 207 numeric summary values 57, 64

control groups 84, 86 controlling for confounders 81

correlation coefﬁcients 175–80, 183 counts 9

covariates see independent variables Cox’s regression model 236

cross-over randomised control trials 86–8 cross-section studies 12

association 177–80 study design 76–8 cross-tabulations 25–6 cumulative data 37–41

cumulative frequencies 23–4 see also ogives

	INDEX	279
data, deﬁnition 3–4	estimates 94–5
data collection see sampling	see also conﬁdence intervals
databases 240, 241	exclusion criteria 240–1
death see survival	expected values 163–6, 182
deciles 57	experimental studies 83–90
decision rules 143–4	explanatory variable see independent
dependent variables 72, 193, 207,	variables
214–17	extraction of data 240–1
descriptive statistics
charts 29–41	false negatives/positives 150
deﬁnition 17–18	Fischer’s exact test 145
distribution 43–9	follow-up see cohort studies
frequency tables 5, 6, 17–27	forest plots 241–3, 250
numeric summary values 51–68	forwards elimination 202
design variables 199–200	forwards selection 201
deviance coefﬁcient 222	frequency matching 81–2
diagnostics 205–9	frequency tables 5, 6, 17–27
discrete metric data 9, 10	categorical data 18–20, 23–6
charts 34–5, 37–8, 40–1	contingency tables 25–6
frequency tables 23	continuous data 20–2
numeric summary values 57, 64	cross-tabulations 25–6
dispersion measures 52, 57–68	cumulative frequencies 23–4
distribution 43–9	discrete data 23
bimodal 47	grouping data 20–2
binomial 116	metric data 20–3
hypothesis tests 144–5	nominal data 18–19
numeric summary values 55, 57, 58,	open-ended groups 22
65–8	ordinal data 20, 23–4
outliers 44	ranking data 27
skew 44–5, 55, 57, 62, 64, 131	relative frequency 19–20
symmetric 44, 46	funnel plots 244–6
transformed data 66–8
uniform 43	GCS see Glasgow Coma Scale
see also Normal distribution	generalisation see statistical inference
double-blind randomised control trials	generalised linear model 209
86	Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) 5–7, 23–4
drop-out 89	goodness-of-ﬁt 196–7, 203–4, 222–3
dummy variables 199–200	grouped data 20–2, 35–7
	grouped frequency distributions 21–2
Edinburgh Maternal Depression
Scale 116	hazard function 236
elimination methods 202–3	hazard ratios 235–6
errors	heterogeneity 246–50
blinding 86	histograms 35–7, 41
drop-out 89	conﬁdence intervals 120
hypothesis tests 149–50	distribution 44–6, 56, 65, 67
linear regression 194, 207–8,	linear regression 211
211	numeric summary values 56, 65,
recall bias 83	67
sampling 73, 83, 94, 112	homogeneity 246–50
selection bias 83, 84–5	homoskedasticity 195

280

INDEX

Hosmer-Lemeshow statistic 222–3 hypothesis tests

chi-squared test 145, 151, 161–8, 221, 222, 234

conﬁdence intervals 117, 119–31, 149, 156, 163

decision rules 143–4

difference between population parameters 141–54

equality of population proportions 161–8 errors 149–50

Fischer’s exact test 145

independent populations 119–25, 127–31, 145–9, 151, 152–4, 162–3

Kruskal-Wallis test 145 logistic regression 221, 222 McNemar’s test 145, 162

Mann-Whitney rank-sums test 127–31, 145, 147–9, 151

matched populations 125–6, 131, 145, 147, 149, 151, 162

matched-pairs t test 125–6, 145, 147, 151 mean 145–7

median 145, 147–9 Minitab 146, 148–9 Normal distribution 144–5

p values 143–4, 146–9, 156–9, 164–6, 168 paired populations 145

power 150, 151–2, 168 procedure 143 proportions 161–8

ratio of two population parameters 155–9 research questions 142

rules of thumb 152–4 signiﬁcance level 144, 150, 153 SPSS 146, 148

trend 166–8

two-sample t test 120–5, 145–6, 151, 222 Wilcoxon signed-rank test 117, 131, 145, 149,

151

see also null hypothesis

incidence rate 53–4 inclusion criteria 240–1 independent populations

difference 120–5, 127–31 hypothesis tests 145–9, 151, 152–4,

162–3

Mann-Whitney rank-sums test 127–31 ratios 133–4

two-sample t test 120–5

independent variables

linear regression 193, 199–201, 204, 207–8 logistic regression 216, 221–2

inferences 77, 93–5

informed guesses see conﬁdence intervals Injury Severity Scale (ISS) 184 intention-to-treat 89

interquartile range (iqr) 58–61, 63–4, 232 interval property 8

iqr see interquartile range ISS see Injury Severity Scale

journals 244

Kaplan-Meier curves 230–1, 233–5 Kaplan-Meier tables 228–30 Kappa statistic 179, 182–4

Kendal’s rank-order correlation coefﬁcient 180 Killip scale 157

Kruskal-Wallis test 145

L’Abbe´ plots 247

left skew see positive skew Levene’s test 123

limits of agreement 185–6 linear association 172–3, 175 linear regression 189–211

analysis of variance 209–11 association 190–1, 192 assumptions 194–5, 205–9 causal relationships 190–1 coding design 199–200 colinearity 198 confounders 202–3, 204–5 design variables 199–200 diagnostics 205–9

goodness-of-ﬁt 196–7, 203–4 Minitab 196

model-building 200–1 multiple 197–9, 203, 205–9

nominal independent variables 199–200 ordinary least squares 193–8, 205, 209 population regression equation 194 sample regression equation 193

SPSS 195–6

statistical signiﬁcance 195–6 variable selection 200–3 variation 190–1

location measures 52, 54–7, 59–61 log-log plots 238

log-rank test 233–5

	INDEX	281
logistic regression 213–23	logistic regression 222
binary dependent variables 214–15	numeric summary values 57, 64
goodness-of-ﬁt 222–3	MLE see maximum likelihood estimation
maximum likelihood estimation 217–18	mode 54, 57
Minitab 217–20	model-building 200–1
model-building 221–2	mound-shaped see symmetric distribution
multiple 221	multi-colinearity 198
odds ratios 217, 218–19, 220	multiple linear regression 197–9, 203, 205–9
regression coefﬁcient 219	multiple logistic regression 221
SPSS 217, 220–1	multivariate analysis 223, 238
statistical inference 220–1
longitudinal studies see case-control studies;	n-tiles 57
cohort studies	negative
	association 172–3
McNemar’s test 145, 162	outcomes 244
Mann-Whitney rank-sums test 127–31, 145,	skew 44–5, 55, 62
147–9, 151	NNT see number needed to treat
Mantel-Haenszel test 248–50	nominal categorical data 4–5, 10
manual variable selection 200, 202–3	agreement 184
matched case-control studies 81, 82, 102	charts 30–4, 41
matched populations 125–6, 131, 145, 147, 149,	frequency tables 18–19
151, 162	linear regression 199–200
matched-pairs t test 125–6, 145, 147, 151	numeric summary values 57, 64
maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) 217–18	non-linear association 173, 175
mean	see also logistic regression
conﬁdence intervals 112–16, 120–6, 134	non-parametric tests 127, 144–5, 151
hypothesis tests 145–7	Normal distribution 48–9
linear regression 197–8	association 176
numeric summary values 55, 57	conﬁdence intervals 112–13, 120, 127
standard error 112–16	hypothesis tests 144–5
statistical inference 94	linear regression 194, 207, 209
systematic review 242–3, 249	probability 100
measurements 8, 10	standard deviation 65–8
median	null hypothesis
conﬁdence intervals 117–18, 127–31	difference between population parameters
hypothesis tests 145, 147–9	142–5, 148, 150
numeric summary values 54–5, 57, 59–61	ratio of two population parameters 155–6, 158,
statistical inference 94	163–4, 168
survival time 231–2	survival 233–4
meta-analysis 239, 240, 246–50	number lines 6
homogeneity/heterogeneity 246–50	number needed to treat (NNT) 98, 106–7
L’Abbe´ plots 247	numeric summary values 51–68
Mantel-Haenszel test 248–50	dispersion measures 52, 57–68
metric data 4, 7–9, 10	distribution 55, 57, 58, 65–8
agreement 184–6	incidence rate 53–4
association 176, 180	interquartile range 58–61, 63–4
charts 34–8, 40–1	location measures 52, 54–7, 59–61
conﬁdence intervals 120, 126, 127, 131	numbers 52–3
frequency tables 20–3	ogives 60–1
hypothesis tests 145, 152–3	outliers 55, 57, 58, 62
linear regression 193, 194, 207	percentages 52–3

282

INDEX

numeric summary values (Continued) percentiles 56–7

prevalence 53–4 proportions 52–3 quantitation 52 range 58

skew 55, 57, 62, 64 standard deviation 62–8 transformed data 66–8

observed values 163–6 odds 101–2, 103

odds ratios 105–6

conﬁdence intervals 134–5, 137–8 hypothesis tests 158–9

logistic regression 217, 218–19, 220 systematic review 245–6, 248–9

ogives 38–40, 41, 60–1

OLS see ordinary least squares open trials 86

open-ended groups 22 opinions 77

ordered categorical data 166–8 ordering of data 5–7, 10, 18–20 ordinal categorical data 5–7, 10

agreement 184 association 180

charts 30–4, 37–8, 40–1 conﬁdence intervals 127, 131 frequency tables 19–20, 23–4 hypothesis tests 145

numeric summary values 55, 57, 64 ordinary least squares (OLS) 193–8, 205, 209 outcome variables see dependent variables outliers

distribution 44 frequency tables 22 meta-analysis 247

numeric summary values 55, 57, 58, 62 OXCHECK Study Group 39

pvalues association 176–9

hypothesis testing 143–4, 146–9, 156–9, 164–6, 168

linear regression 195–7, 198, 201–2 logistic regression 217, 220, 221–2 survival 234, 237–8

Palliative Care Outcome scale (POS) 183 parallel design 86

parametric tests 127, 144–5, 151

parsimony 202

Pearson’s correlation coefﬁcient 175–7 percentages

cumulative frequency 38–40 frequency 19–20

numeric summary values 52–3 percentiles 56–7

period prevalence 53 pie charts 30–1, 41 placebo bias 86

point-biseral correlation coefﬁcient 180 point prevalence 53

Poisson distribution 48–9 population

correlation coefﬁcients 175–7 difference between parameters 119–31,

141–54

logistic regression model 215–16 mean 112–16, 120–6, 134, 145–7 median 117–18, 127–31, 145, 147–9 odds ratios 137, 158–9

proportions 116–17, 126–7

ratio of two parameters 133–8, 155–9 regression equation 194

risk ratios 155–6

single parameter 111–18 statistical inference 93–5 study design 72–3 survival 230

see also conﬁdence intervals; hypothesis tests

POS see Palliative Care Outcome scale positive

association 172–3 outcomes 244

skew 44–5, 55, 57, 62 power of a test 150, 151–2, 168 predictions 196

predictors see independent variables prevalence 53–4, 77

probability 97–100 calculation 99–100

case-control studies 98, 102–3, 105–6 cohort studies 100–1, 102, 104, 106–7 deﬁnition 98

logistic regression 215 Normal distribution 100

number needed to treat 98, 106–7 odds 101–2, 103

odds ratios 105–6 Poisson distribution 48–9

INDEX

283

risk 100–1, 102–3 risk ratios 104 survival 228–31

proportional frequency 99 proportional hazards 236–8 proportions

conﬁdence intervals 116–17, 126–7 hypothesis tests 161–8

numeric summary values 52–3 populations 161–8

samples 116

prospective studies see cohort studies

Psychiatric Symptom Frequency (PSF) scale 46–7 publication bias 244, 245

quintiles 57

random number tables 85, 251 randomisation 74, 84–5, 88–9 randomised controlled trials (RCT)

hypothesis tests 146, 151, 156–7, 165 study design 85, 86–90

systematic review 242 range 58

ranked data frequency tables 27

Kendal’s rank-order correlation coefﬁcient 180

log-rank test 233–5

Mann-Whitney rank-sums test 127–31, 145, 147–9, 151

Spearman’s rank correlation coefﬁcient 177–80, 183

Wilcoxon signed-rank test 117, 131, 145, 149, 151

ratio property 8

RCT see randomised control trials recall bias 83

reference values 102

regression see linear regression; logistic regression relative frequency 19–20

cumulative 38–9, 60 relative risk see risk ratios research questions 142 residuals 194, 207–8, 211 response bias 86

response variables see dependent variables retrospective studies see case-control studies review see systematic review

right skew see negative skew risk 100–1, 102–3, 217

risk ratios 100, 104 conﬁdence intervals 134–6 hypothesis tests 155–7 survival 237

systematic review 242, 245, 248, 250 rules of thumb 152–4

sample

correlation coefﬁcients 175–80 logistic regression model 216 mean 112, 116, 120–2, 134 odds ratios 137

percentage 94 proportions 116 regression equation 193 statistic 94

survival 230 sampling 72, 73

errors 73, 83, 94, 112 frames 74

randomisation 74, 84–5, 88–9 statistical inference 93–5 types 74–5

scatterplots 172–5, 176

linear regression 192, 196, 201, 208–11 logistic regression 214–16

selection bias 83, 84–5, 88–9 signiﬁcance level (α) 144, 150, 153 simple bar charts 31–2

simple random sampling 74 skew 44–5, 55, 57, 62, 64, 131 slope coefﬁcient 191

Spearman’s rank correlation coefﬁcient 177–80, 183

spread see dispersion measures stacked bar charts 34 standard deviation 62–8

agreement 185–6 conﬁdence intervals 120, 123

standard error 112–16 statistical inference 77, 93–5 step charts 37–8, 41 stepwise selection 201–2

straight line models see linear regression stratiﬁed random sampling 74

study design 71–90 blinding 86

case-control studies 80–3 case-series studies 76 clinical trials 84

cohort studies 78–80, 83

284	INDEX
study design (Continued)	Mantel-Haenszel test 248–50
confounders 81, 84	meta-analysis 239, 240, 246–50
contingency tables 79–80, 82	methods 240–3
cross-section studies 76–8	publication bias 244, 245
experimental studies 83–90	search strategy 241
intention-to-treat 89
matching 81–2	t distribution 114, 120–6, 145–7, 151, 222
outcome variables 72	tables see frequency tables
populations 72–3	target populations 73, 75, 93–4
randomisation 83, 84–5, 88–9	test statistic 164
randomised control trials 85, 86–90	tests see hypothesis tests
sampling 72–5, 83–5, 88–9	time series charts 40–1
types of study 75–81	transformed data 66–8
study populations 73, 75, 93–4	treatment bias 86
sub-groups 25	treatment groups 84, 86
sum of squares 63	trend 166–8
summary values see numeric summary values	two-sample t test 120–5, 145–6, 151, 222
surveys 76–8	type I/II errors 150
survival 227–38
censored data 228	uniform distributions 43
comparison between groups 232–9	units 5, 7–9
Cox’s regression model 236	univariate analysis 238
hazard ratios 235–6	univariate logistic regression 222
Kaplan-Meier curves 230–1, 233–5	unmatched case-control studies 81–2
Kaplan-Meier tables 228–30
log-log plots 238	variables
log-rank test 233–5	characteristics 9–13
median 231–2	deﬁnition 3–4
null hypothesis 233–4	selection 200–3
probability 228–31	types 4–9
proportional hazards 236–8	see also categorical; continuous; discrete;
single groups 228	metric; nominal; ordinal data
symmetric distribution 44, 46	variation 190–1
systematic random sampling 74	visual analogue scale (VAS) 10, 59, 118
systematic review 239–45
extraction of data 240–1	Wald statistic 220–1
forest plots 241–3, 250	weighted kappa 184
funnel plots 244–6	weighted mean 242–3, 249
homogeneity/heterogeneity 246–50	Wilcoxon signed-rank test 117, 131, 145, 149,
identiﬁcation of trials 240–1	151
inclusion criteria 240–1
L’Abbe´ plots 247	z distribution 220

<<< < Предыдущая 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 4243 / 4343

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