Ординатура / Офтальмология / Английские материалы / Mechanisms of the Glaucomas_Shields, Tombran-Tink, Barnstable_2008

These non-uniform diagnostic criteria and examination methods hamper reliable comparison and pooling of results in the literature. Despite this, a meta-analysis was performed based on several large population-based studies, resulting in an overall prevalence rate of 1.9% in subjects of 40 years of age and older (23). Similar to most other prevalence studies, a clear increase in prevalence was seen with increasing age

(5,23–28).

Prevalence studies with a partial black, African descent population showed four to six times higher prevalence rates of OAG compared to white subjects (29–32). Subjects of Hispanic descent showed an intermediate prevalence between blacks and whites, but possibly had a steeper increase with age (27). Reports on prevalence of POAG in Asians differ. Most show similar prevalence rates as in whites (33–42), but the Tajimi study showed a prevalence more comparable with blacks. This could be due to the use of frequency doubling perimetry, possibly a more sensitive visual field screening technique (24).

INCIDENCE OF OPEN-ANGLE GLAUCOMA

FROM POPULATION-BASED STUDIES

The incidence of OAG has been determined in at least five population-based studies (15,43–46). Table 3 summarizes the most important characteristics (age and ethnicity) of the various study populations and the resulting incidences. As can be seen in this table, the cumulative incidence of POAG is typically 1–2% per 5 years. The results of the various studies are in good agreement, despite methodological differences. The higher incidence reported in the Barbados study might be related to a different ethnicity of the study population (see risk factors). The higher incidence in one population-based study could be due to their high (23%) prevalence of pseudoexfoliation (44). After exclusion of pseudoexfoliation, their incidence (5-year risk) drops to approximately 1%. Pseudoexfoliation is an established risk factor for OAG (47–51), and the prevalence of pseudoexfoliation (about 20%) in the Scandinavian countries (44,52–54) is higher than the 2% in the USA (55,56). Two possible explanations for the difference between the two Swedish studies are exclusion of pseudo-exfoliation by one (43) or regional differences within Sweden (57).

Table 3

Incidence of Open-Angle Glaucoma in Population-Based Studies

Rotterdam (15)

P, based on prevalence data; I, based on incidence data; OR, odds ratio; RR, relative risk; CI, 95% confidence interval.

aNot mentioned or possible to calculate CI. bNo strict population-based data

REFERENCES

1.Haffmans JHA. (1861) Beiträge zur Kentniss des Glaucoms. Archiv für Ophthalmologie 8,124–78.

2.Quigley HA. (2005) Glaucoma: macrocosm to microcosm the Friedenwald lecture. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 46,2662–70.

3.Bathija R, Gupta N, Zangwill L, Weinreb RN. (1998) Changing definition of glaucoma. J Glaucoma 7,165–9.

4.Schwenn O, Yun SH, Troost A, Pfeiffer N. (2005) Glaucoma studies from 1996 to 1999 in peer-reviewed journals. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 243,629–36.

5.Wolfs RC, Borger PH, Ramrattan RS et al. (2000) Changing views on open-angle glaucoma: definitions and prevalences—-The Rotterdam Study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 41, 3309–21.

6.Dielemans I, Vingerling JR, Hofman A, Grobbee DE, de Jong PT. (1994) Reliability of intraocular pressure measurement with the Goldmann applanation tonometer in epidemiological studies. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 232,141–4.

7.Quigley HA, Tielsch JM, Katz J, Sommer A. (1996) Rate of progression in openangle glaucoma estimated from cross-sectional prevalence of visual field damage. Am J Ophthalmol 122,355–63.

8.Pereira ML, Kim CS, Zimmerman MB, Alward WL, Hayreh SS, Kwon YH. (2002) Rate and pattern of visual field decline in primary open-angle glaucoma. Ophthalmology 109,2232–40.

9.Anonymous (1994) The Advanced Glaucoma Intervention Study (AGIS). 2. Visual field test scoring and reliability. Ophthalmology 101,1445–55.

10.Leske MC, Heijl A, Hyman L, Bengtsson B. (1999) Early manifest glaucoma trial: design and baseline data. Ophthalmology 106,2144–53.

11.Ikram MK, Borger PH, Assink JJ, Jonas JB, Hofman A, de Jong PT. (2002) Comparing ophthalmoscopy, slide viewing, and semiautomated systems in optic disc morphometry.

Ophthalmology 109,486–93.

12.Ramrattan RS, Wolfs RC, Panda-Jonas S et al. (2001) Prevalence and causes of visual field loss in the elderly and associations with impairment in daily functioning: the Rotterdam Study. Arch Ophthalmol 119,1788–94.

13.Altman DG. (1991) Practical Statistics for Medical Research. 1st ed. London: Chapman & Hall 1991.

14.Rothman KJ, Greenland S. (1998) Modern Epidemiology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven; 1998.

15.de Voogd S, Ikram MK, Wolfs RC, Jansonius NM, Hofman A, de Jong PT. (2005) Incidence of open-angle glaucoma in a general elderly population: the Rotterdam Study.

Ophthalmology 112,1487–93.

16.Hollows FC, Graham PA. (1966) Intra-ocular pressure, glaucoma, and glaucoma suspects in a defined population. Br J Ophthalmol 50,570–86.

17.Resnikoff S, Pascolini D, Etya’ale D et al. (2004) Global data on visual impairment in the year 2002. Bull World Health Organ 82,844–51.

18.Quigley HA, Broman AT. (2006) The number of people with glaucoma worldwide in 2010 and 2020. Br J Ophthalmol 90,262–7.

19.Sommer A, Katz J, Quigley HA et al. (1991) Clinically detectable nerve fiber atrophy precedes the onset of glaucomatous field loss. Arch Ophthalmol 109,77–83.

20.Katz J, Tielsch JM, Quigley HA, Sommer A. (1995) Automated perimetry detects visual field loss before manual Goldmann perimetry. Ophthalmology 102,21–6.

21.Lichter PR. (1976) Variability of expert observers in evaluating the optic disc. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 74,532–72.

22.Wolfs RC, Ramrattan RS, Hofman A, de Jong PT. (1999) Cup-to-disc ratio: ophthalmoscopy versus automated measurement in a general population: The Rotterdam Study.

Ophthalmology 106,1597–601.

23.Friedman DS, Wolfs RC, O’Colmain BJ et al. (2004) Prevalence of open-angle glaucoma among adults in the United States. Arch Ophthalmol 122,532–8.

24.Iwase A, Suzuki Y, Araie M et al. (2004) The prevalence of primary open-angle glaucoma in Japanese: the Tajimi Study. Ophthalmology 111,1641–8.

25.Bonomi L, Marchini G, Marraffa M et al. (1998) Prevalence of glaucoma and intraocular pressure distribution in a defined population. The Egna-Neumarkt Study. Ophthalmology 105,209–15.

26.Wensor MD, McCarty CA, Stanislavsky YL, Livingston PM, Taylor HR. (1998) The prevalence of glaucoma in the Melbourne Visual Impairment Project. Ophthalmology 105,733–9.

27.Quigley HA, West SK, Rodriguez J, Munoz B, Klein R, Snyder R. (2001) The prevalence of glaucoma in a population-based study of Hispanic subjects: Proyecto VER. Arch Ophthalmol 119,1819–26.

28.Mitchell P, Smith W, Attebo K, Healey PR. (1996) Prevalence of open-angle glaucoma in Australia. The Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmology 103,1661–9.

29.Leske MC, Connell AM, Schachat AP, Hyman L. (1994) The Barbados Eye Study. Prevalence of open angle glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol 112,821–9.

30.Mason RP, Kosoko O, Wilson MR et al. (1989) National survey of the prevalence and risk factors of glaucoma in St. Lucia, West Indies. Part I. Prevalence findings. Ophthalmology 96,1363–8.

31.Tielsch JM, Sommer A, Katz J, Royall RM, Quigley HA, Javitt J. (1991) Racial variations in the prevalence of primary open-angle glaucoma. The Baltimore Eye Survey. JAMA 266,369–74.

32.Racette L, Wilson MR, Zangwill LM, Weinreb RN, Sample PA. (2003) Primary open-angle glaucoma in blacks: a review. Surv Ophthalmol 48,295–313.

33.Shiose Y, Kitazawa Y, Tsukahara S et al. (1991) Epidemiology of glaucoma in Japan. A nationwide glaucoma survey. Jpn J Ophthalmol 35,133–55.

34.Foster PJ, Baasanhu J, Alsbirk PH, Munkhbayar D, Uranchimeg D, Johnson GJ. (1996) Glaucoma in Mongolia. A population-based survey in Hovsgol province, northern Mongolia. Arch Ophthalmol 114,1235–41.

35.Dandona L, Dandona R, Srinivas M et al. (2000) Open-angle glaucoma in an urban population in southern India: the Andhra Pradesh eye disease study. Ophthalmology 107,1702–9.

36.Foster PJ, Oen FT, Machin D et al. (2000) The prevalence of glaucoma in Chinese residents of Singapore: a cross-sectional population survey of the Tanjong Pagar district. Arch Ophthalmol 118,1105–11.

37.Yoshida M, Okada E, Mizuki N et al. (2001) Age-specific prevalence of open-angle glaucoma and its relationship to refraction among more than 60,000 asymptomatic Japanese subjects. J Clin Epidemiol 54,1151–8.

38.Bourne RR, Sorensen KE, Klauber A, Foster PJ, Johnson GJ, Alsbirk PH. (2001) Glaucoma in East Greenlandic Inuit–a population survey in Ittoqqortoormiit (Scoresbysund). Acta Ophthalmol Scand 79,462–7.

39.Bourne RR, Sukudom P, Foster PJ et al. (2003) Prevalence of glaucoma in Thailand: a population based survey in Rom Klao District, Bangkok. Br J Ophthalmol 87,1069–74.

40.Rahman MM, Rahman N, Foster PJ et al. (2004) The prevalence of glaucoma in Bangladesh: a population based survey in Dhaka division. Br J Ophthalmol 88,1493–7.

41.Raychaudhuri A, Lahiri SK, Bandyopadhyay M, Foster PJ, Reeves BC, Johnson GJ. (2005) A population based survey of the prevalence and types of glaucoma in rural West Bengal: the West Bengal Glaucoma Study. Br J Ophthalmol 89,1559–64.

42.Vijaya L, George R, Paul PG et al. (2005) Prevalence of open-angle glaucoma in a rural south Indian population. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 46,4461–7.

43.Bengtsson BO. (1989) Incidence of manifest glaucoma. Br J Ophthalmol 73,483–7.

44.Ekstrom C. (1993) Elevated intraocular pressure and pseudoexfoliation of the lens capsule as risk factors for chronic open-angle glaucoma. A population-based five-year follow-up study. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 71,189–95.

45.Leske MC, Connell AM, Wu SY et al. (2001) Incidence of open-angle glaucoma: the Barbados Eye Studies. The Barbados Eye Studies Group. Arch Ophthalmol 119,89–95.

46.Mukesh BN, McCarty CA, Rait JL, Taylor HR. (2002) Five-year incidence of open-angle glaucoma: the visual impairment project. Ophthalmology 109,1047–51.

47.Sugar S. (1984) Pigmentary glaucoma and the glaucoma associated with the exfoliationpseudoexfoliation syndrome: update. Robert N. Shaffer lecture. Ophthalmology 91,307–10.

48.Kozart DM, Yanoff M. (1982) Intraocular pressure status in 100 consecutive patients with exfoliation syndrome. Ophthalmology 89,214–8.

49.Brooks AM, Gillies WE. (1988) The presentation and prognosis of glaucoma in pseudoexfoliation of the lens capsule. Ophthalmology 95,271–6.

50.Slagsvold JE. (1986) The follow-up in patients with pseudoexfoliation of the lens capsule with and without glaucoma. 2. The development of glaucoma in persons with pseudoexfoliation. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 64,241–5.

51.Le A, Mukesh BN, McCarty CA, Taylor HR. (2003) Risk factors associated with the incidence of open-angle glaucoma: the visual impairment project. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 44,3783–9.

52.Ohrt V, Nehen JH. (1981) The incidence of glaucoma capsulare based on a Danish hospital material. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 59, 888.

53.Lindblom B, Thorburn W. (1982) Prevalence of visual field defects due to capsular and simple glaucoma in Halsingland, Sweden. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 60,353–61.

54.Ringvold A, Blika S, Elsas T et al. (1991) The middle-Norway eye-screening study. II. Prevalence of simple and capsular glaucoma. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 69,273–80.

55.Cashwell LF, Jr., Shields MB. (1988) Exfoliation syndrome. Prevalence in a southeastern United States population. Arch Ophthalmol 106,335–6.

56.Hiller R, Sperduto RD, Krueger DE. (1982) Pseudoexfoliation, intraocular pressure, and senile lens changes in a population-based survey. Arch Ophthalmol 100,1080–2.

57.Ringvold A. (1996) Epidemiology of glaucoma in northern Europe. Eur J Ophthalmol 6,26–9.

58.Leske MC, Connell AM, Wu SY, Hyman LG, Schachat AP. (1995) Risk factors for open-angle glaucoma. The Barbados Eye Study. Arch Ophthalmol 113,918–24.

59.Dielemans I, Vingerling JR, Algra D, Hofman A, Grobbee DE, de Jong PT. (1995) Primary open-angle glaucoma, intraocular pressure, and systemic blood pressure in the general elderly population. The Rotterdam Study. Ophthalmology 102,54–60.

60.Klein BE, Klein R, Knudtson MD. (2005) Intraocular pressure and systemic blood pressure: longitudinal perspective: the Beaver Dam Eye Study. Br J Ophthalmol 89,284–7.

61.Kahn HA, Milton RC. (1980) Alternative definitions of open-angle glaucoma. Effect on prevalence and associations in the Framingham eye study. Arch Ophthalmol 98,2172–7.

62.Klein BE, Klein R, Sponsel WE et al. (1992) Prevalence of glaucoma. The Beaver Dam Eye Study. Ophthalmology 99,1499–504.

63.Coffey M, Reidy A, Wormald R, Xian WX, Wright L, Courtney P. (1993) Prevalence of glaucoma in the west of Ireland. Br J Ophthalmol 77,17–21.

64.Salmon JF, Mermoud A, Ivey A, Swanevelder SA, Hoffman M. (1993) The prevalence of primary angle closure glaucoma and open angle glaucoma in Mamre, western Cape, South Africa. Arch Ophthalmol 111,1263–9.

65.Giuffre G, Giammanco R, Dardanoni G, Ponte F. (1995) Prevalence of glaucoma and distribution of intraocular pressure in a population. The Casteldaccia Eye Study. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 73,222–5.

66.Cedrone C, Culasso F, Cesareo M, Zapelloni A, Cedrone P, Cerulli L. (1997) Prevalence of glaucoma in Ponza, Italy: a comparison with other studies. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 4,59–72.

67.Buhrmann RR, Quigley HA, Barron Y, West SK, Oliva MS, Mmbaga BB. (2000) Prevalence of glaucoma in a rural East African population. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 41,40–8.

68.Varma R, Ying-Lai M, Francis BA et al. (2004) Prevalence of open-angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension in Latinos: the Los Angeles Latino Eye Study. Ophthalmology 111,1439–48.

69.Anton A, Andrada MT, Mujica V, Calle MA, Portela J, Mayo A. (2004) Prevalence of primary open-angle glaucoma in a Spanish population: the Segovia study. J Glaucoma 13,371–6.

70.De Voogd S, Wolfs RC, Jansonius NM, Witteman JC, Hofman A, de Jong PT. (2006) Atherosclerosis, C-reactive protein, and risk for open-angle glaucoma: the Rotterdam study.

Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 47,3772–6.

71.Suzuki Y, Iwase A, Araie M et al. (2006) Risk factors for open-angle glaucoma in a Japanese population: the Tajimi Study. Ophthalmology 113,1613–7.

72.Klein BE, Klein R, Jensen SC. (1994) Open-angle glaucoma and older-onset diabetes. The Beaver Dam Eye Study. Ophthalmology 101,1173–7.

73.Tielsch JM, Katz J, Quigley HA, Javitt JC, Sommer A. (1995) Diabetes, intraocular pressure, and primary open-angle glaucoma in the Baltimore Eye Survey. Ophthalmology 102,48–53.

74.Dielemans I, de Jong PT, Stolk R, Vingerling JR, Grobbee DE, Hofman A. (1996) Primary open-angle glaucoma, intraocular pressure, and diabetes mellitus in the general elderly population. The Rotterdam Study. Ophthalmology 103,1271–5.

75.Mitchell P, Smith W, Chey T, Healey PR. (1997) Open-angle glaucoma and diabetes: the Blue Mountains eye study, Australia. Ophthalmology 104,712–8.

76.Pasquale LR, Kang JH, Manson JE, Willett WC, Rosner BA, Hankinson SE. (2006) Prospective study of type 2 diabetes mellitus and risk of primary open-angle glaucoma in women. Ophthalmology 113,1081–6.

77.de Voogd S., Ikram MK, Wolfs RC et al. (2006) Is Diabetes Mellitus a Risk Factor for Open-Angle Glaucoma? The Rotterdam Study. Ophthalmology 113,1827–31.

78.Tielsch JM, Katz J, Sommer A, Quigley HA, Javitt JC. (1994) Family history and risk of primary open angle glaucoma. The Baltimore Eye Survey. Arch Ophthalmol 112,69–73.

79.Wolfs RC, Klaver CC, Ramrattan RS, van Duijn CM, Hofman A, de Jong PT. (1998) Genetic risk of primary open-angle glaucoma. Population-based familial aggregation study.

Arch Ophthalmol 116,1640–5.

80.Mitchell P, Rochtchina E, Lee AJ, Wang JJ. (2002) Bias in self-reported family history and relationship to glaucoma: the Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 9,333–45.

81.Tielsch JM, Katz J, Sommer A, Quigley HA, Javitt JC. (1995) Hypertension, perfusion pressure, and primary open-angle glaucoma. A population-based assessment. Arch Ophthalmol 113,216–21.

82.Bonomi L, Marchini G, Marraffa M, Bernardi P, Morbio R, Varotto A. (2000) Vascular risk factors for primary open angle glaucoma: the Egna-Neumarkt Study. Ophthalmology 107,1287–93.

83.Mitchell P, Lee AJ, Rochtchina E, Wang JJ. (2004) Open-angle glaucoma and systemic hypertension: the blue mountains eye study. J Glaucoma 13,319–26.

84.Hulsman CAA, Borger PA, Vingerling JR, Hofman A, Witteman JCM, De Jong P.T.V.M. (2007) Blood pressure, arterial stiffness, and open-angle glaucoma. The Rotterdam Study.

Arch Ophthalmol 125,805–12.

85.Leske MC, Wu SY, Nemesure B, Hennis A. (2002) Incident open-angle glaucoma and blood pressure. Arch Ophthalmol 120,954–9.

86.Klein BE, Klein R, Meuer SM, Goetz LA. (1993) Migraine headache and its association with open-angle glaucoma: the Beaver Dam Eye Study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 34, 3024–7.

87.Wang JJ, Mitchell P, Smith W. (1997) Is there an association between migraine headache and open-angle glaucoma? Findings from the Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmology 104,1714–9.

88.Mitchell P, Hourihan F, Sandbach J, Wang JJ. (1999) The relationship between glaucoma and myopia: the Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmology 106,2010–5.

89.Wong TY, Klein BE, Klein R, Knudtson M, Lee KE. (2003) Refractive errors, intraocular pressure, and glaucoma in a white population. Ophthalmology 110,211–7.

90.Grodum K, Heijl A, Bengtsson B. (2001) Refractive error and glaucoma. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 79,560–6.

91.Kang JH, Pasquale LR, Rosner BA et al. (2003) Prospective study of cigarette smoking and the risk of primary open-angle glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol 121,1762–8.

92.Müskens RP, de Voogd S, Wolfs RC, Witteman JC, Hofman A, de Jong PTVM, Stricker BH, Jansonius NM. (2007) Systemic antihypertensive medication and incident open-angle glaucoma. Ophthalmology Jun 11 [Epub ahead of print].