The use of neuromodulators to enhance the position of the brow in a nonsurgical manner has been a very recent phenomenon. In 1997, Blitzer et al. reported on a collaborative study of 162 patients for the treatment of forehead and periocular rhytids with botulinum toxin-A (BTX). They demonstrated a predictable, reproducible, and consistent decrease in dynamic rhytid formation in the glabellar and forehead [89]. In 1998, Frankel and Kamer reported reproducible medial brow elevation using BTX injections into the glabellar depressors – the procerus, and corrugator muscles [90]. Ahn and Maas evaluated injecting BTX to the lateral brow depressors (temporal aspect of the orbital orbicularis oculi muscle) to produce lateral brow elevation [91]. Huang et al. reported reproducible “chemical browlift” over the entire course of the brow by injecting BTX in medial and lateral depressors of the brow [92]. Today, neuromodulators are used as adjunctive treatments in the rejuvenation of the brow and offer a conservative option for patients with limited brow ptosis.

1.4Midface

In comparison to surgical rejuvenation of the eyelid and brow, the midface has only gained the interest of aesthetic surgeons over the past two decades. There are a number of aging changes that contribute to midface aging, including: laxity of the suspending ligaments of the eyelid and cheek, descent of the malar fat pad, loss of the malar prominence, and generalized soft tissue and bony volume loss. These changes can lead to contour irregularities of the lower lid, cheek, and their associated interface, which manifest as an orbitomalar and nasojugal depression (tear trough), irregular malar contour, and deepening of the nasolabial fold.

The major advances in midface rejuvenation have been the deep plane/composite facelift, the endoscopic midface lift, and volume restoration. The works of Skoog, Mitz, and Peyronie in the 1970 defined the superficial musculoaponeurotic system (SMAS) and demonstrated that surgical repositioning of the SMAS improves lower facial rejuvenation [93, 94]. The deep plane facelift which utilizes a sub-SMAS dissection was first described in 1990 by Hamra as a more reliable method to elevate the midface [95]. In 1992, Hamra described the composite facelift, which went one step further by elevating the orbicularis oculi muscle with the SMAS as a single flap in the facelift procedure, in order to enhance midface and lower lid appearance [96]. Kamer and others further popularized and validated the deep plane technique [97, 98]. The deep plane rhytidectomy remains a mainstay in contemporary rhytidectomy surgery.

Subperiosteal midface rejuvenation sprouted from the work of Tessier, a craniofacial pioneer, who had vast experience with this technique. During this work, he discovered that lifting the temporal region, lateral canthus, and midface with dissection to the level of the maxilla would reverse the

changes of aging midface [99]. In 1988, Psillakis and colleagues published results on facial rejuvenation via subperiosteal midface dissection, reporting a 6.7% incidence of injury to the facial nerve [100]. In 1989, Tessier and Krastinova-Lolov described their midface lift technique (mask lift) which elevated the midface with a combination of intraoral and coronal incisions, and a subperiosteal dissection of the malar eminence, zygomatic arch, and orbital margin [101, 102]. Open midface lift methods were further modified in the 1990 by Ortiz-Monasterio, Tapia et al., and De la Plaza et al. in order to protect the fascial nerve. OrtizMonasterio and Tapia et al. used multiple interconnected subperiosteal pockets below both layers of the temporalis facia to protect the facial nerve [103, 104]. De la Plaza et al. stayed supraperiosteal anterior to zygomatic arch to protect the facial nerve [105]. The early midface lifts had a relatively high rate of facial nerve injury and were mostly “open” techniques utilizing wide coronal and temporal incisions.

The endoscopic assisted subperiosteal midface lift is currently the preferred method for surgical midface lifting. Endoscopic midface rejuvenation followed in the footsteps of the endoscopic browlift techniques. Isse, in 1994, described using an endoscope for surgical manipulation of the midface and brow complex [77]. Fuente del Campo was the first to report that the endoscopic technique was less traumatic than “open” procedures, and that it led to less postoperative edema and a speedier recovery [106]. Burnett el al. described an endoscopic dissection from temporal and subciliary incisions. With the assistance of the endoscope and retrograde dissection, they described a decreased incidence of frontal nerve branch injury [107]. In the late 1990, Paul and McCord et al. popularized the transblepharoplasty approach to midface rejuvenation [108, 109]. Their techniques aggressively excised skin and required a lateral canthotomy. Many of the contemporary techniques for endoscopic midface rejuvenation have been modified and elaborated on by Ramirez over the last decade [110–113].

Recently, volume restoration has taken a more prominent role in midface rejuvenation. In 1893, Neuber first reported using autologous fat to help correct facial scars [114]. Modern day liposuction, developed by Italian surgeons in the 1970, continued to modify the techniques used today for autologous fat grafting [115]. Illouz was the first to demonstrate that the fat removed during liposuction could survive and be transferred to fill depressions [116]. In 2001, Ramirez described a hybrid technique of midface rejuvenation utilizing autologous fat grafting, rotation of the Bichat’s fat pad, and an endoscopic midface lift [111]. Coleman wrote the first dedicated textbook on autologous fat grafting in 2004 [117]. He was able to show facial volume enhancement through injecting small aliquots of autologous fat in different facial soft tissue planes. Glasgold and Lam have also been central in the paradigm shift of periocular and midface rejuvenation with the use of autologous fat grafting [118, 119]. Autologous fat grafting is now an integral part of the rejuvenation of the periocular region.

Synthetic fillers have also gained attention for facial rejuvenation; beginning in the 1970, when bovine collagen was first introduced [120]. Initially, fillers such as collagen, hyaluronic acid gel, and calcium hydroxylapatite were utilized for nasolabial effacement. However, more recently, the use of fillers for lower eyelid and midface volume rejuvenation has become widely accepted. In 2004, Goldberg et al. reported a series of patients who obtained excellent results with the use of hyaluronic acid gel filler in the tear trough region [121]. Poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA, Sculptra, Sanofi-Aventix, Bridgewater, NJ), a collagen stimulator was introduced to the North American market for use of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) related lipoatrophy in 2004. Although, the product was initially approved for HIV-related lipoatrophy, it has been successfully used in midface and lower facial rejuvenation to reverse age-related lipoatrophy [122].

Beginning in the 1970, Spadafora et al., Hinder, and Gonzalez Uloa introduced the use of alloplastic facial implants for volume restoration of the face [123–125]. In the 1980, Binder described the use of alloplastic midface implants as an independent method to restore volume secondary to soft tissue atrophy [126]. Terrino further advocated the use of midface implantation in the 1990 to enhance facial aesthetics [127]. In the periorbital area, alloplastic implants have been used to augment the orbital rim, fill the tear trough, and mask a prominent globe [128–130].

1.5Conclusion

Contemporary periorbital aesthetic surgery has evolved with the contributions of surgeons from a variety of subspecialties. Ophthalmologists have been integral in the early descriptions of eyelid surgery. Plastic surgeons, facial plastic surgeons, oculoplastic surgeons, and dermatologists have since added immense insight, intellect, and technique to the field. Each contribution has served as a building block for the next. This has significantly improved our ability to evaluate the periocular region, has fueled a wealth of growth and development in our understanding of the procedures we perform, and has laid the foundation for improved outcomes to both surgical and nonsurgical rejuvenation of this area of the face. None of this could have been accomplished without the cumulative contributions of each of the specialties previously mentioned.

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