- •Foreword
- •Preface
- •Contents
- •1.1 Introduction
- •1.2 Method
- •1.2.1 Databases
- •1.2.2 Dates
- •1.2.3 Keywords
- •1.2.4 Criteria for Inclusion
- •1.2.5 Criteria for Exclusion
- •1.2.6 Selection of Papers
- •1.3 Results
- •1.3.1 Subspecialty
- •1.3.2 Type of Telemedicine
- •1.3.3 Study Design
- •1.3.4 Final Conclusions of Papers
- •1.4 Discussion
- •References
- •2.1 Introduction
- •2.2 The Need for Diabetic Retinopathy Screening Programs
- •2.4 Guidelines for Referring Patients
- •2.7 Program Models for Diabetic Retinopathy Screening
- •2.9 Program Personnel and Operations
- •2.9.1 Primary Care Providers
- •2.9.2 Photographers
- •2.9.3 Clinical Consultants
- •2.9.4 Administrators
- •2.9.5 A Note to CEOs, Operations Directors, and Clinic Managers
- •2.10 Policies and Procedures
- •2.10.1 Sample Protocol 1
- •2.10.1.1 Diabetic Retinopathy Screening Services
- •Policy
- •Background
- •Procedure
- •2.10.2 Sample Protocol 2
- •2.10.2.1 Pupil Dilation Before Diabetic Retinopathy Photography
- •Policy
- •Background
- •Procedure
- •2.10.3 Sample Protocol 3
- •2.10.3.1 Diabetic Retinopathy Photography Review
- •Policy
- •Background
- •Procedure
- •2.11 Technical Requirements
- •2.11.1 Connectivity
- •2.11.2 Resolution
- •2.11.3 Color
- •2.11.4 Stereopsis
- •2.11.5 Compression
- •2.11.6 Enhancement
- •2.11.7 Pupil Dilation
- •2.11.8 Early California Telemedicine Initiatives Diabetic Retinopathy Screening
- •2.11.9 The American Indian Diabetes Teleophthalmology Grant Program
- •2.11.10 Central Valley EyePACS Diabetic Retinopathy Screening Project
- •2.12.1 Diabetic Retinopathy
- •2.12.1.1 ADA Guidelines Terms
- •2.12.1.2 Vitrectomy
- •References
- •3: Stereopsis and Teleophthalmology
- •3.1 Introduction
- •3.2 History of Stereopsis and Stereopsis in Ophthalmology
- •3.3 Technology and Photography
- •3.3.3 Imaging Fields
- •3.3.4 Image Viewing Techniques
- •3.3.5 Image Compression
- •3.4 Stereoscopic Teleophthalmology Systems
- •3.4.1 University of Alberta
- •3.4.4 Joslin Vision Network
- •3.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •4.1 Introduction
- •4.2 Methods
- •4.2.1 Main Outcome Measures
- •4.3 Results
- •4.3.1 Retinal Video Recording Versus Retinal Still Photography
- •4.3.2 Video Compression Analysis
- •4.4 Discussion
- •References
- •5.1 Introduction
- •5.1.1 Automated, Remote Image Analysis of Retinal Diseases
- •5.1.2 Telehealth
- •5.2 Design Requirements
- •5.2.1 Telehealth Network Architecture
- •5.2.2 Work Flow
- •5.2.3 Performance Evaluation of the Network
- •5.3 Automated Image Analysis Overview
- •5.3.1 Quality Assessment Module
- •5.3.2 Vascular Tree Segmentation
- •5.3.3 Quality Evaluation
- •5.4 Anatomic Structure Segmentation
- •5.4.1 Optic Nerve Detection
- •5.4.2 Macula
- •5.4.3 Lesion Segmentation
- •5.4.4 Lesion Population Description
- •5.4.5 Image Query
- •5.5 Summary
- •References
- •6.1 Introduction
- •6.3 Optical Coherence Tomography to Detect Leakage
- •References
- •7.1 Introduction
- •7.2 Patients and Methods
- •7.2.1 Participants
- •7.2.2 Methods
- •7.2.3 Statistics
- •7.3 Results
- •7.3.1 Reliability of Image Evaluation
- •7.3.2 Prevalence of Glaucomatous Optic Nerve Atrophy
- •7.4 Discussion
- •7.5 Perspectives
- •References
- •8.1 Introduction
- •8.1.2 Homology Between Retinal and Systemic Microvasculature
- •8.1.3 Need for More Precise CVD Risk Prediction
- •8.2.1 Retinal Microvascular Signs
- •8.2.2 Retinal Vessel Biometry
- •8.2.3 Newer Retinal Imaging for Morphologic Features of Retinal Vasculature
- •8.3 Associations of Retinal Imaging and CVD Risk
- •8.3.1.1 Risk of Pre-clinical CVD
- •8.3.1.2 Risk of Stroke
- •8.3.1.3 Risk of Coronary Heart Disease
- •8.3.2.1 Risk of Hypertension
- •8.3.2.2 Risk of Stroke
- •8.3.2.3 Risk of Coronary Heart Disease
- •8.3.2.4 Risk of Peripheral Artery Disease
- •8.3.3 Newer Morphologic Features of Retinal Vasculature
- •8.4 Retinal Imaging and Its Potential as a Tool for CVD Risk Prediction
- •References
- •9.1 Alzheimer’s Disease
- •9.2 Treatments
- •9.3 Diagnosis
- •9.6 Conclusions
- •References
- •10.1 Introduction
- •10.1.1 Stroke
- •10.1.2 Heart Disease
- •10.1.3 Arteriovenous Ratio
- •10.2 Purpose
- •10.3 Method
- •10.3.1 Medical Approach
- •10.3.2 Technical Approach
- •10.3.3 Output of Medical Data
- •10.4 Patients
- •10.5 Results
- •10.5.1 Medical History
- •10.5.2 Telemedical Evaluation of Retinal Vessels
- •10.5.2.1 Prevalence of Retinal Microangiopathy
- •10.5.2.2 Arteriovenous Ratio
- •10.5.2.3 PROCAM-Index
- •10.6 Discussion and Perceptive
- •10.6.1 Estimation of “Stroke Risk” Estimated by the Stage of Retinal Microangiopathy
- •References
- •11.1 Introduction
- •11.2 System Requirements
- •11.3 Fundus Camera
- •11.4 Imaging Procedure
- •11.4.1 Reading Center Procedure
- •11.5 Detection of Macular Edema
- •11.6 Implementation
- •11.7 Unreadable Images
- •11.7.1 Impact on Overall Diabetic Retinopathy Assessment Rates
- •11.7.2 Compliance with Recommendations
- •11.7.3 Challenges
- •11.7.4 Summary
- •References
- •12.1 Screening
- •12.2 Background
- •12.3 Historical Perspective in England
- •12.4 Methodology
- •12.4.1 The Aim of the Programme
- •12.5 Systematic DR Screening
- •12.6 Cameras for Use in the English Screening Programme
- •12.7 Software for Use in the English Screening Programme
- •12.9 Implementation in England
- •12.11 Quality Assurance
- •12.12 The Development of External Quality Assurance in the English Screening Programme
- •12.13 Information Technology (IT) Developments for the English Screening Programme
- •12.14 Dataset Development
- •12.15 The Development of External Quality Assurance Test Set for the English Screening Programme
- •12.16 Failsafe
- •12.17 The Epidemic of Diabetes
- •References
- •13.1 Introduction
- •13.2 Burden of Diabetes and Diabetic Retinopathy in India
- •13.3 Diabetic Retinopathy Screening Models
- •13.4 Need for Telescreening
- •13.5 Guidelines for Telescreening
- •13.6 ATA Categories of DR Telescreening Validation
- •13.7 Yield of Diabetic Retinopathy in a Telescreening Model
- •13.8 How Are Images Transferred
- •13.10 How Many Fields Are Enough for Diabetic Retinopathy Screening
- •13.11 Is Mydriasis Needed While Using Nonmydriatic Camera?
- •13.12 Validation Studies on Telescreening
- •13.12.1 Accuracy of Telescreening
- •13.12.2 Patient Satisfaction in Telescreening
- •13.12.3 Cost Effectivity
- •13.12.4 Telescreening for Diabetic Retinopathy: Our Experience
- •13.13 Future of Diabetic Retinopathy Screening
- •References
- •14.1 Introduction
- •14.2 Methods
- •14.3 Discussion
- •14.4 Conclusion
- •References
- •15.1 Introduction
- •15.1.1 Description of the EADRSI
- •15.5 State Support of Screening in the Safety Net
- •15.7 Screening Economics for Providers
- •15.8 Patient Sensitivity to Fees
- •15.9 Conclusion
- •References
- •16.1 Introduction
- •16.2 Setting Up the New Screening Model
- •16.2.1 Phase 1: Training
- •16.2.2 Phase 2: Evaluation of Agreement
- •16.2.3 Phase 3: Implementation of the Screening Model
- •16.3 Technologic Requirements
- •16.3.1 Data Management
- •16.3.2 Data Models
- •16.3.2.1 Data Scheme for Patient-Related Information
- •16.3.2.2 Data Scheme for Images
- •Fundus Camera VISUCAM Pro NM
- •PACS Server
- •ClearCanvas DICOM Visualizer
- •16.4 Results
- •16.4.1 Phase 2: Agreement Evaluation
- •16.4.2 Phase 3: Implementation of the Screening Model
- •16.5 Discussion
- •16.5.1 Evaluation of the Screening Model
- •16.5.2 Prevalence of DR
- •16.5.3 Quality Evaluation
- •16.6 Conclusion
- •References
- •17.1.3 Examination and Treatment
- •17.1.4 Limitations of Current Care
- •17.2 Telemedicine and ROP
- •17.2.2 Accuracy and Reliability of Telemedicine for ROP Diagnosis
- •17.2.3 Operational ROP Telemedicine Systems
- •17.2.4 Potential Barriers
- •17.3 Closing Remarks
- •17.3.1 Future Directions
- •References
- •18.1 Introduction
- •18.2 Neonatal Stress and Pain
- •18.3 ROP Screening Technique
- •18.4 Effect of Different Examination Techniques on Stress
- •18.5 Future of Retinal Imaging in Babies
- •References
- •19.1 Introduction
- •19.2 History of the Program
- •19.3 Telehealth Technologies
- •19.4 Impact of the Program
- •Selected References
- •Preamble
- •Introduction
- •Background
- •The Diabetic Retinopathy Study (DRS)
- •Mission
- •Vision
- •Goals
- •Guiding Principles
- •Ethics
- •Clinical Validation
- •Category 1
- •Category 2
- •Category 3
- •Category 4
- •Communication
- •Medical Care Supervision
- •Patient Care Coordinator
- •Image Acquisition
- •Image Review and Evaluation
- •Information Systems
- •Interoperability
- •Image Acquisition
- •Compression
- •Data Communication and Transmission
- •Computer Display
- •Archiving and Retrieval
- •Security
- •Reliability and Redundancy
- •Documentation
- •Image Analysis
- •Legal Requirements
- •Facility Accreditation
- •Privileging and Credentialing
- •Stark Act and Self-referrals
- •State Medical Practice Acts/Licensure
- •Tort Liability
- •Duty
- •Standards of Care
- •Consent
- •Quality Control
- •Operations
- •Customer Support
- •Originating Site
- •Transmission
- •Distant Site
- •Financial Factors
- •Reimbursement
- •Grants
- •Federal Programs
- •Other Financial Factors
- •Equipment Cost
- •Summary
- •Abbreviations
- •Appendices
- •Appendix A: Interoperability
- •Appendix B: DICOM Metadata
- •Appendix C: Computer-Aided Detection
- •Appendix D: Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)
- •Appendix F: Quality Control
- •Appendix H: Customer Support
- •Level 1
- •Level 2
- •Level 3
- •Appendix I: Reimbursement
- •Medicare
- •Medicaid
- •Commercial Insurance Carrier Reimbursement
- •Other Financial Factors
- •Disease Prevention
- •Resource Utilization
- •American Telemedicine Association’s Telehealth Practice Recommendations for Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Contributors
- •Second Edition
- •First Edition
- •Index
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7.2Patients and Methods
7.2.1Participants
The data used in this work were gathered in several cities in Germany in a cross-sectional survey with the goal to screen and to evaluate retinal vessels and the optic nerve [10, 11]. A total of 19,294 volunteers were taking part in the ongoing study from August 2002 until January 2004. We were interested in the age group 45Ð64 years, which reduced the number of eligible persons for evaluation to 9,602. This population consisted of 3,822 women and 5,780 men. The mean age of the population was 52.90 years with a standard deviation of 5.26 years. The mean age among women was 53.08 ± 5.29 years, among men it was 52.79 ± 5.24 years.
The major part of the participants (85%) was recruited in companies from the Siemens group; the remaining 15% came from several middleclass enterprises and public places (e.g., SBK ofÞces, Siemens-Betriebskrankenkasse, health insurance). The companies were selected by SBK, and all companies agreed by contract to provide the data for scientiÞc research. All departments were invited to participate in the study, and volunteers from these departments could register themselves. There were no inclusion or exclusion criteria; volunteers were examined on Þrst-come, Þrst-serve basis. The examinations took place in the working area.
The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki on Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects. The Clinical Investigation Ethics Committee of the University of Erlangen-NŸrnberg approved the study protocol. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants.
7.2.2Methods
All examinations were performed by staff members of the Private Tele-Ophthalmological Institute, Erlangen, Germany. The non-mydriatic fundus camera (KOWA NM-45, nonmyd-alpha, Japan), having a resolution of 1,216×1,600 pixels, was
used to create digital papilla-centered colored fundus images of both eyes of each participant. Using the non-mydriatic camera, there was no need to dilate pupils. Thus, interruptions in the working processes of the companies were minimized. Image size was 45¡ to allow evaluation of the optic nerve head plus retinal nerve Þbers. Within a profound interview, the participants were asked for their medical history and for their family history. By this interview, gender, age, presence of arterial hypertension, ocular hypertension, or family history of glaucoma were reported. Intraocular pressure (IOP) was not measured, but reported raised IOP was documented. The images and the medical history were stored on a server using web-based software (MedStage, talkingeyes & more GmbH, Siemens, Erlangen, Germany). Medical evaluation of the anonymized fundus images was done by a telemedical analysis: the ophthalmologists were able to download the images from the server and to examine them at the computers in their ofÞces. The images were inspected in Þve different magniÞcations and in three different color compositions (color image, red-free image, and green channel image). Figure 7.1 shows a screenshot of the evaluation software.
The standardized evaluation of the optic nerve head, the retina, and retinal vessels was done by one out of six experienced ophthalmologists. All images were examined based on a standardized protocol including retinal vessels (i.e., focal and generalized arterial narrowing, vessel tortuosity, thickened veins, microaneurysms, arteriovenous compression, retinal hemorrhages, venous beadings, neovascularization, and IRMA (intraretinal microvascular abnormalities)), the retina and macula (i.e., cotton wool spots, hard exudates, macular edema, and vitreous hemorrhage), and optic nerve head (i.e., suspected glaucomatous optic nerve atrophy, established glaucomatous optic nerve atrophy, simple optic atrophy, papillary drusen, myopic papillary degeneration, and optic nerve edema). The standardized examination protocol is also depicted in Fig. 7.1.
Evaluation of the images was performed using the option to zoom images and to examine them in different ways (color image, red-free image, and green channel image). The diameter of the