Ординатура / Офтальмология / Английские материалы / Diabetes and Ocular Disease Past, Present, and Future Therapies 2nd edition_Scott, Flynn, Smiddy_2009
.pdf
94 Diabetes and Ocular Disease
81.Wong TY, Klein R, Islam FM, et al. The Multi Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Diabetic retinopathy in a Multi Ethnic Cohort in the United States. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;141(3):446–455.
82.Harris MI, Klein R, Welborn TA, Knuiman MW. Onset of NIDDM occurs at least 4–7 yr before clinical diagnosis. Diabetes Care. 1992;15(7):815–819.
83.Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Cruickshanks KJ. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy: XVII. The 14-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy and associated risk factors in type 1 diabetes. Ophthalmology. 1998; 105(10):1801–1815.
84.Kernell A, Dedorsson I, Johansson B, et al. Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in children and adolescents with IDDM. A population-based multicentre study. Diabetologia. 1997;40(3):307–310.
85.Krolewski AS, Warram JH, Rand LI, Christlieb AR, Busick EJ, Kahn CR. Risk of proliferative diabetic retinopathy in juvenile-onset type I diabetes: a 40-yr follow-up study. Diabetes Care. 1986;9(5):443–452.
86.Colwell JA. Effect of diabetic control on retinopathy. Diabetes. 1966;15(7):497–499.
87.Miki E, Fukuda M, Kuzuya T, Kosaka K, Nakao K. Relation of the course of retinopathy to control of diabetes, age, and therapeutic agents in diabetic Japanese patients. Diabetes. 1969;18(11):773–780.
88.Doft BH, Kingsley LA, Orchard TJ, Kuller L, Drash A, Becker D. The association between long-term diabetic control and early retinopathy. Ophthalmology. 1984;91(7):763–769.
89.Friberg TR, Rosenstock J, Sanborn G, Vaghefi A, Raskin P. The effect of long-term near normal glycemic control on mild diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology. 1985; 92(8):1051–1058.
90.The Kroc Collaborative Study Group. Blood glucose control and the evolution of diabetic retinopathy and albuminuria. A preliminary multicenter trial. The Kroc Collaborative Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1984;311(6):365–372.
91.Lauritzen T, Frost-Larsen K, Larsen HW, Deckert T. Effect of 1 year of nearnormal blood glucose levels on retinopathy in insulin-dependent diabetics. Lancet. 1983;1(8318):200–204.
92.Klein R. The epidemiology of diabetic retinopathy: findings from the Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 1987;27(4): 230–238.
93.Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Davis MD, DeMets DL. Glycosylated hemoglobin predicts the incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy. JAMA. 1988; 260(19):2864–2871.
94.Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Cruickshanks KJ. Relationship of hyperglycemia to the long-term incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy. Arch Intern Med. 1994;154(19):2169–2178.
95.The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. The effect of intensive diabetes treatment on the progression of diabetic retinopathy in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Arch Ophthalmol. 1995;113(1):36–51.
96.The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. Progression of retinopathy with intensive versus conventional treatment in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. Ophthalmology. 1995;102(4):647–661.
97.Dahl-Jorgensen K, Brinchmann-Hansen O, Hanssen KF, et al. Effect of near normoglycaemia for two years on progression of early diabetic retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy: the Oslo study. BMJ. 1986;293(6556):1195–1199.
Epidemiology and Risk Factors of Diabetic Retinopathy |
95 |
98.The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. The absence of a glycemic threshold for the development of long-term complications: the perspective of the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Diabetes. 1996;45(10):1289–1298.
99.Chaturvedi N, Sjoelie AK, Porta M, et al. Markers of insulin resistance are strong risk factors for retinopathy incidence in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2001;24(2): 284–289.
100.The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications Research Group. Retinopathy and nephropathy in patients with type 1 diabetes four years after a trial of intensive therapy. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(6):381–389.
101.UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34). Lancet. 1998;352(9131):854–865. [erratum appears in Lancet. November 7, 1998;352(9139):1557].
102.Olsen BS, Sjolie A, Hougaard P, et al. A 6-year nationwide cohort study of glycaemic control in young people with type 1 diabetes. Risk markers for the development of retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy. Danish Study Group of Diabetes in Childhood. J Diabetes Complicat. 2000;14(6):295–300.
103.Klein R, Klein BE, Lee KE, Cruickshanks KJ, Moss SE. The incidence of hypertension in insulin-dependent diabetes. Arch Intern Med. 1996;156(6):622–627.
104.Rassam SM, Patel V, Kohner EM. The effect of experimental hypertension on retinal vascular autoregulation in humans: a mechanism for the progression of diabetic retinopathy. Exp Physiol. 1995;80(1):53–68.
105.Hsueh WA, Anderson PW. Hypertension, the endothelial cell, and the vascular complications of diabetes mellitus. Hypertension. 1992;20(2):253–263.
106.Suzuma I, Hata Y, Clermont A, et al. Cyclic stretch and hypertension induce retinal expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2: potential mechanisms for exacerbation of diabetic retinopathy by hypertension. Diabetes. 2001;50(2):444–454.
107.Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Davis MD, DeMets DL. Is blood pressure a predictor of the incidence or progression of diabetic retinopathy? Arch Intern Med. 1989;149(11):2427–2432.
108.Adler AI, Stratton IM, Neil HA, et al. Association of systolic blood pressure with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 36): prospective observational study. BMJ. 2000;321(7258):412–419.
109.Schrier RW, Estacio RO, Esler A, Mehler P. Effects of aggressive blood pressure control in normotensive type 2 diabetic patients on albuminuria, retinopathy and strokes. Kidney Int. 2002;61(3):1086–1097.
110.Gaede P, Vedel P, Larsen N, Jensen GV, Parving HH, Pedersen O. Multifactorial intervention and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2003;348(5):383–393.
111.Ferris FL, 3rd, Chew EY, Hoogwerf BJ. Serum lipids and diabetic retinopathy. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. Diabetes Care. 1996;19(11):1291–1293.
112.Lyons TJ, Jenkins AJ, Zheng D, et al. Diabetic retinopathy and serum lipoprotein subclasses in the DCCT/EDIC cohort. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2004;45(3):910–918.
113.Chew EY. Diabetic retinopathy and lipid abnormalities. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 1997;8(3):59–62.
114.Su DH, Yeo KT. Diabetic retinopathy and serum lipids. Singapore Med J. 2000;41(6):295–297.
96 Diabetes and Ocular Disease
115.Cusick M, Chew EY, Chan CC, Kruth HS, Murphy RP, Ferris FL, 3rd. Histopathology and regression of retinal hard exudates in diabetic retinopathy after reduction of elevated serum lipid levels. Ophthalmology. 2003;110(11):2126–2133.
116.Curtis TM, Scholfield CN. The role of lipids and protein kinase Cs in the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2004;20(1):28–43.
117.Cohen RA, Hennekens CH, Christen WG, et al. Determinants of retinopathy progression in type 1 diabetes mellitus. Am J Med. 1999;107(1):45–51.
118.Nazimek-Siewniak B, Moczulski D, Grzeszczak W. Risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in Type 2 diabetes: results of longitudinal study design.
J Diabet Complications. 2002;16(4):271–276.
119.Klein BE, Moss SE, Klein R, Surawicz TS. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. XIII. Relationship of serum cholesterol to retinopathy and hard exudate. Ophthalmology. 1991;98(8):1261–1265.
120.Chew EY, Klein ML, Ferris FL, 3rd, et al. Association of elevated serum lipid levels with retinal hard exudate in diabetic retinopathy. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) Report 22. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996;114(9):1079–1084.
121.Keech A, Simes RJ, Barter P, et al. Effects of long-term fenofibrate therapy on cardiovascular events in 9795 people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (the FIELD study): randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2005;366(9500):1849–1861.
122.Gupta A, Gupta V, Thapar S, Bhansali A. Lipid-lowering drug atorvastatin as an adjunct in the management of diabetic macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;137(4):675–682.
123.Sen K, Misra A, Kumar A, Pandey RM. Simvastatin retards progression of retinopathy in diabetic patients with hypercholesterolemia. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2002;56(1):1–11.
124.Gordon B, Chang S, Kavanagh M, et al. The effects of lipid lowering on diabetic retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1991;112(4):385–391.
125.Sjoberg S, Gunnarsson R, Gjotterberg M, Lefvert AK, Persson A, Ostman J. Residual insulin production, glycaemic control and prevalence of microvascular lesions and polyneuropathy in long-term type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia. 1987;30(4):208–213.
126.Klein R, Moss SE, Klein BE, Davis MD, DeMets DL. Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. XII. Relationship of C-peptide and diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes. 1990;39(11):1445–1450.
127.Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. XVI. The relationship of C-peptide to the incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes. 1995;44(7):796–801.
128.Steffes MW, Sibley S, Jackson M, Thomas W. Beta-cell function and the development of diabetes-related complications in the diabetes control and complications trial. Diabetes Care. 2003;26(3):832–836.
129.Root H, Pote WH, Frehner H. Triopathy of diabetes; sequence of neuropathy, retinopathy and nephropathy in one hundred fifty-five patients. Arch Intern Med. 1954;94(6):931–941.
130.Klein R, Zinman B, Gardiner R, et al. The relationship of diabetic retinopathy to preclinical diabetic glomerulopathy lesions in type 1 diabetic patients: the ReninAngiotensin System Study. Diabetes. 2005;54(2):527–533.
131.Ballone E, Colagrande V, Di Nicola M, Di Mascio R, Di Mascio C, Capani F. Probabilistic approach to developing nephropathy in diabetic patients with retinopathy. Stat Med. 2003;22(24):3889–3897.
Epidemiology and Risk Factors of Diabetic Retinopathy |
97 |
132.Cruickshanks KJ, Ritter LL, Klein R, Moss SE. The association of microalbuminuria with diabetic retinopathy. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. Ophthalmology. 1993;100(6):862–867.
133.Klein R, Moss SE, Klein BE. Is gross proteinuria a risk factor for the incidence of proliferative diabetic retinopathy? Ophthalmology. 1993;100(8):1140–1146.
134.Bresnick GH. Diabetic maculopathy. A critical review highlighting diffuse macular edema. Ophthalmology. 1983;90(11):1301–1317.
135.Perkovich BT, Meyers SM. Systemic factors affecting diabetic macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol. 1988;105(2):211–212.
136.Tokuyama T, Ikeda T, Sato K. Effects of haemodialysis on diabetic macular leakage. Br J Ophthalmol. 2000;84(12):1397–1400.
137.Freund KM, Belanger AJ, D’Agostino RB, Kannel WB. The health risks of smoking. The Framingham Study: 34 years of follow-up. Ann Epidemiol. 1993;3(4): 417–424.
138.Gaziano JM, Buring JE, Breslow JL, et al. Moderate alcohol intake, increased levels of high-density lipoprotein and its subfractions, and decreased risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1993;329(25):1829–1834.
139.Moss SE, Klein R, Klein BE. Cigarette smoking and ten-year progression of diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology. 1996;103(9):1438–1442.
140.Moss SE, Klein R, Klein BE. The association of alcohol consumption with the incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology. 1994;101(12): 1962–1968.
141.Uckaya G, Ozata M, Bayraktar Z, Erten V, Bingol N, Ozdemir IC. Is leptin associated with diabetic retinopathy? Diabetes Care. 2000;23(3):371–376.
142.van Leiden HA, Dekker JM, Moll AC, et al. Blood pressure, lipids, and obesity are associated with retinopathy: the hoorn study. Diabetes Care. 2002;25(8):1320–1325.
143.De Block CE, De Leeuw IH, Van Gaal LF. Impact of overweight on chronic microvascular complications in type 1 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care. 2005;28(7): 1649–1655.
144.Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE. Is obesity related to microvascular and macrovascular complications in diabetes? The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157(6):650–656.
145.Chaturvedi N, Fuller JH. Mortality risk by body weight and weight change in people with NIDDM. The WHO Multinational Study of Vascular Disease in Diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1995;18(6):766–774.
146.Nelson RG, Wolfe JA, Horton MB, Pettitt DJ, Bennett PH, Knowler WC. Proliferative retinopathy in NIDDM. Incidence and risk factors in Pima Indians. Diabetes. 1989;38(4):435–440.
147.Kriska AM, LaPorte RE, Patrick SL, Kuller LH, Orchard TJ. The association of physical activity and diabetic complications in individuals with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: the Epidemiology of Diabetes Complications Study—VII. J Clin Epidemiol. 1991;44(11):1207–1214.
148.Cruickshanks KJ, Moss SE, Klein R, Klein BE. Physical activity and proliferative retinopathy in people diagnosed with diabetes before age 30 yr. Diabetes Care. 1992;15(10):1267–1272.
149.Moloney JB, Drury MI. The effect of pregnancy on the natural course of diabetic retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1982;93(6):745–756.
150.Klein BE, Moss SE, Klein R. Effect of pregnancy on progression of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care. 1990;13(1):34–40.
98 Diabetes and Ocular Disease
151.Chew EY, Mills JL, Metzger BE, et al. Metabolic control and progression of retinopathy. The Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. Diabetes Care. 1995;18(5):631–637.
152.Hemachandra A, Ellis D, Lloyd CE, Orchard TJ. The influence of pregnancy on IDDM complications. Diabetes Care. 1995;18(7):950–954.
153.Lovestam-Adrian M, Agardh CD, Aberg A, Agardh E. Pre-eclampsia is a potent risk factor for deterioration of retinopathy during pregnancy in Type 1 diabetic patients. Diabetic Med. 1997;14(12):1059–1065.
154.Chen HC, Newsom RS, Patel V, Cassar J, Mather H, Kohner EM. Retinal blood flow changes during pregnancy in women with diabetes. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1994;35(8):3199–3208.
155.Schocket LS, Grunwald JE, Tsang AF, DuPont J. The effect of pregnancy on retinal hemodynamics in diabetic versus nondiabetic mothers. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;128(4):477–484.
156.Sone H, Okuda Y, Kawakami Y, et al. Progesterone induces vascular endothelial growth factor on retinal pigment epithelial cells in culture. Life Sci. 1996;59(1):21–25.
157.Rosenn B, Miodovnik M, Kranias G, et al. Progression of diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy: association with hypertension in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1992;166(4):1214–1218.
158.Klein BE, Moss SE, Klein R. Is menarche associated with diabetic retinopathy? Diabetes Care. 1990;13(10):1034–1038.
159.Klein BE, Moss SE, Klein R. Oral contraceptives in women with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1990;13(8):895–898.
160.Klein BE, Klein R, Moss SE. Exogenous estrogen exposures and changes in diabetic retinopathy. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. Diabetes Care. 1999;22(12):1984–1987.
161.Meigs JB, Hu FB, Rifai N, Manson JE. Biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. JAMA. 2004;291(16):1978–1986.
162.Pradhan AD, Manson JE, Rifai N, Buring JE, Ridker PM. C-reactive protein, interleukin 6, and risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus. JAMA. 2001;286(3):327–334.
163.Miyamoto K, Khosrof S, Bursell SE, et al. Prevention of leukostasis and vascular leakage in streptozotocin-induced diabetic retinopathy via intercellular adhesion molecule-1 inhibition. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1999;96(19):10836–10841.
164.Izuora KE, Chase HP, Jackson WE, et al. Inflammatory markers and diabetic retinopathy in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2005;28(3):714–715.
165.Joussen AM, Poulaki V, Le ML, et al. A central role for inflammation in the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy. FASEB J. 2004;18(12):1450–1452.
166.Mitamura Y, Takeuchi S, Yamamoto S, et al. Monocyte chemotactic protein-1 levels in the vitreous of patients with proliferative vitreoretinopathy. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2002;46(2):218–221.
167.Meleth AD, Agron E, Chan CC, et al. Serum inflammatory markers in diabetic retinopathy. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2005;46(11):4295–4301.
168.van Hecke MV, Dekker JM, Nijpels G, et al. Inflammation and endothelial dysfunction are associated with retinopathy: the Hoorn Study. Diabetologia. 2005;48(7):1300–1306.
169.Schram MT, Chaturvedi N, Schalkwijk CG, Fuller JH, Stehouwer CD, Group EPCS. Markers of inflammation are cross-sectionally associated with microvascular
Epidemiology and Risk Factors of Diabetic Retinopathy |
99 |
complications and cardiovascular disease in type 1 diabetes—the EURODIAB Prospective Complications Study. Diabetologia. 2005;48(2):370–378.
170.Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. Effects of aspirin treatment on diabetic retinopathy. ETDRS report number 8. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. Ophthalmology. 1991;98(5 Suppl):757–765.
171.Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE. Epidemiology of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care. 1992;15(12):1875–1891.
172.Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Cruickshanks KJ. Association of ocular disease and mortality in a diabetic population. Arch Ophthalmol. 1999;117(11):1487–1495.
173.Wong TY, Rosamond W, Chang PP, et al. Retinopathy and risk of congestive heart failure. JAMA. 2005;293(1):63–69.
This page intentionally left blank
6
History of Evolving Treatments
for Diabetic Retinopathy
GEORGE W. BLANKENSHIP, MD
CORE MESSAGES
•Creative concepts, research, clinical observations, and sharing information and ideas have resulted in successful treatments for diabetic retinopathy.
•Professor Meyer-Schwickerath introduced photocoagulation for developing and refining the use of light energy to treat retinal diseases in the late 1940s and 1950s.
•Dr. Robert Machemer is appropriately recognized as the father of vitreous surgery for developing the initial concepts, instruments, and procedures for pars plana vitreous surgery in the 1960s and 1970s.
•Collaborative clinical trials sponsored by the National Eye Institute defined the natural history, indications, techniques, and results of treatment for diabetic retinopathy.
The earliest known written record of diabetes was by the Hindu physician Susruta who described a condition of honey urine. Descriptions of diabetes also appear in early Egyptian records, and Greek physicians reported the
melting away of flesh and limbs to urine. Other diabetic complications such as blindness undoubtedly occurred, but were probably rare because of the patients’ relatively short life span following the development of diabetes.
Diabetic retinopathy was first described by von Jager in 1855 [1]. Initially, the fundus changes were thought to be the result of hypertension that often coexisted with diabetes, or an inflammatory response to elevated albumin and urea levels resulting in the descriptive term diabetic retinitis. Later, the specific relationship
101
102 Diabetes and Ocular Disease
between diabetes and retinal vascular changes was recognized, but diabetic retinopathy remained a relatively uncommon complication.
CONTROL OF DIABETES AND RETINOPATHY
The discovery of insulin by Banting and Best [2] in 1921 revolutionized the treatment of diabetes and markedly extended the lives of people with this disease. The increased longevity provided more time for the development of late complications such as retinopathy. Loss of vision and blindness from diabetic retinopathy became an increasing problem without successful treatment.
The direct relationship of blood sugar levels and diabetic retinopathy was suspected but not proven or universally accepted. Some argued that diabetes had a primary effect on the basement membrane of blood vessels, independent of blood sugar [3], while others believed that tight control of blood glucose levels would inhibit the progression of the vascular changes. Only when instruments were developed, which patients could use to check their blood sugar repeatedly throughout the day, did intensive control of blood sugar level become feasible.
Later, the National Institutes of Health supported a large multicenter clinical trial, the Diabetes Control and Complication Trial (DCCT), which proved that good control of blood sugar was a very important factor in preventing and slowing the progression of retinopathy [4].
PHOTOCOAGULATION
The risk of losing vision from looking at the sun had been known for centuries, and solar retinal burns were observed after the development of the ophthalmoscope. The possibility of using light to treat retinal diseases gradually evolved from these observations. Following a solar eclipse on July 10, 1945, Meyer-Schwickerath (Fig. 6.1) in Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany, became interested in the possible use of light energy to treat retinal diseases. He initially used focused sunlight (Fig. 6.2) but found this to be impractical, and tried other sources of light (Fig. 6.3) before refining the use of light produced by a high pressure xenon arc bulb (Fig. 6.4). His results of treating retinal tears and small suspected melanomas were first published in 1949 [5–7]. Moran-Sales had been doing similar research independently and he published his results shortly thereafter in 1950 [8].
The initial results of treating diabetic retinopathy lesions with photocoagulation were discouraging, but persistent efforts during the 1950s and 1960s by Wetzig (Fig. 6.5) [9,10], Amalric (Fig 6.6) [11,12], Okun (Fig 6.7) [13–15], Wessing [16], and numerous other ophthalmologists began to produce better visual and anatomical results than those reported for the natural course of the disease by Caird [17] and Beetham (Fig. 6.8) [18]. Various techniques of photocoagulation treatment of diabetic retinopathy were tried and advocated. Treatment strategies ranged from coagulating everything that was red (retinal hemorrhages and microaneurysms) to producing a line of coagulation along the sides of the major vessels to direct confluent treatment of neovascularization.
Figure 6.1. Meyer-Schwickerath in Hamburg, Germany, when initially developing photocoagulation. Professor Meyer-Schwickerath is universally recognized as the father of photocoagulation.
Figure 6.2. Meyer-Schwickerath’s lens system for focusing sunlight for photocoagulation.
103