- •Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Preface
- •Contents
- •Contributors
- •Nonproliferative Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Nonproliferative Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Inflammatory Mechanisms
- •Microaneurysms
- •Vascular Permeability
- •Capillary Closure
- •Classification Of Nonproliferative Retinopathy
- •Macular Edema
- •Risk Factors For Progression Of Retinopathy
- •Severity of Retinopathy
- •Glycemic Control
- •The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial
- •Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications Trial
- •The United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study
- •Hypertension
- •The United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study
- •Appropriate Blood Pressure Control in Diabetes Trials
- •Elevated Serum Lipid Levels
- •Pregnancy and Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Other Systemic Risk Factors
- •Management Of Nonproliferative Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Photocoagulation
- •Scatter Photocoagulation for Nonproliferative Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Scatter Photocoagulation for Proliferative Retinopathy
- •Focal Photocoagulation for Diabetic Macular Edema
- •Other Treatment of Diabetic Macular Edema
- •Medical Therapy
- •Aspirin And Antiplatelet Treatments
- •Aldose Reductase Inhibitors
- •Other Medical Treatments
- •Summary
- •Acknowledgment
- •References
- •Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Development and Natural History
- •Histopathology and Early Development
- •Proliferation and Regression of New Vessels
- •Contraction of the Vitreous and Fibrovascular Proliferations
- •Retinal Distortion and Detachment
- •Burned-Out Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Systemic Associations
- •Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy and Glycemic Control
- •Other Risk Factors for Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Rubeosis Iridis
- •Anterior Hyaloidal Fibrovascular Proliferation
- •Management of Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Pituitary Ablation
- •Photocoagulation
- •Randomized Clinical Trials of Laser Photocoagulation
- •The Diabetic Retinopathy Study
- •Risks and Benefits Photocoagulation In The Drs
- •The Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study
- •Indications For Photocoagulation of Pdr
- •PRP and Macular Edema
- •PRP Treatment Techniques
- •Vitrectomy for PDR
- •Pharmacologic Treatment of PDR
- •Acknowledgment
- •References
- •Brief Historical Background
- •The Wesdr
- •Prevalence of Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Incidence of Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Diabetic Retinopathy in African American and Hispanic Whites
- •Native Americans and Asian Americans
- •Age and Puberty
- •Genetic and Familial Factors
- •Modifiable Risk Factors
- •Hyperglycemia
- •Clinical Trials of Intensive Treatment of Glycemia
- •Diabetes Control and Complications Trial
- •The United Kingdom Diabetes Prospective Study (UKPDS)
- •Hypertension
- •Lipids
- •Subclinical and Clinical Diabetic Nephropathy
- •Microalbuminuria and Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Gross Proteinuria and Retinopathy
- •Diabetic Retinopathy as a Risk Indicator of Subclinical Nephropathy
- •Other Risk Factors For Retinopathy
- •Smoking and Drinking
- •Body Mass Index and Physical Activity
- •Hormone and Reproductive Exposures in Women
- •Prevalence and Incidence of Visual Impairment
- •Conclusions
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Fluorescein Angiography
- •Properties
- •Side Effects
- •Normal Fluorescein Angiography
- •Terminology
- •Fluorescein Angiography in the Evaluation of Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Fluorescein Angiography in the Evaluation of Diabetic Macular Edema
- •Optical Coherence Tomography
- •Low-Coherence Interferometry
- •OCT Image Interpretation
- •OCT Technology Development
- •The Role of OCT in Diabetic Macular Edema
- •Morphologic Patterns of Diabetic Macular Edema
- •Clinical Applications of OCT in Diabetic Macular Edema
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Diabetic primates
- •Type of Diabetes
- •Histopathology and Rate of Development of the Retinopathy
- •Therapies Studied in this Model
- •Advantages and Disadvantages of the Model
- •Diabetic dogs
- •Type of Diabetes
- •Histopathology and Rate of Development of Retinopathy
- •Therapies Studied in this Model
- •Advantages and Disadvantages of the Model
- •Diabetic cats
- •Type of Diabetes
- •Histopathology and Rate of Development of Retinopathy
- •Therapies Studied in this Model
- •Advantages and Disadvantages of the Model
- •Diabetic rats
- •Type of Diabetes
- •Type 1 diabetes
- •Type 2 diabetes
- •Histopathology and Rate of Development of Retinopathy
- •Vascular disease
- •Neuronal disease
- •Therapies or Gene Modifications Studied in this Model
- •Advantages and Disadvantages of the Model
- •Diabetic mice
- •Type of Diabetes
- •Type 1 diabetes
- •Type 2 diabetes
- •Histopathology and Rate of Development of Retinopathy
- •Vascular disease
- •Neural disease
- •Therapies or Gene Modifications Studied in this Model
- •Advantages and Disadvantages of the Model
- •Other Rodents
- •Galactose Feeding
- •Nondiabetic Models in Which Growth Factors are Altered
- •VEGF overexpression
- •IGF overexpression
- •PDGF-B-deficient mice
- •Oxygen-Induced Retinopathy
- •Sympathectomy
- •Retinal Ischemia–Reperfusion
- •Summary
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Biochemistry and Genetics of The Polyol Pathway
- •Aldose Reductase
- •The Aldose Reductase Enzyme
- •The Aldose Reductase Gene
- •Polymorphisms of the AR Gene
- •Sorbitol Dehydrogenase
- •The Sorbitol Dehydrogenase Enzyme
- •The Sorbitol Dehydrogenase Gene
- •Ar Polymorphisms and Risk of Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Sdh Polymorphisms and Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Ar Overexpression
- •Sdh Overexpression
- •Ar “Knockout” Mice
- •Sdh-Deficient Mice
- •Osmotic Stress
- •Oxidative Stress
- •Activation of Protein Kinase C
- •Generation of AGE Precursors
- •Proinflammatory Events and Apoptosis
- •Ari Structures and Properties
- •Effects of Aris in Experimental Diabetic Retinopathy
- •The Polyol Pathway in Human Diabetic Retinopathy
- •The Sorbinil Trial
- •Perspective and Needs
- •Rationale for Defining the Pathogenic Role of the Polyol Pathway
- •Needs to be Met to Arrive at Anti-Polyol Pathway Therapy
- •References
- •Introduction to Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Biochemistry of Age Formation
- •Pathogenic Role of Ages In Diabetic Retinopathy
- •AGEs and Clinical Correlation of Diabetic Retinopathy
- •AGE Accumulation in the Eye
- •Effect of AGEs on Retinal Cells
- •RAGE in Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Other AGE Receptors in Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Anti-Age Strategies For Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Dag-Pkc Pathway
- •Diabetes and Retinal Blood Flow
- •Basement Membrane and Ecm Changes
- •Vascular Permeability and Angiogenesis
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Sources of Oxidative Stress in The Diabetic Retina
- •Overview
- •Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
- •Advanced Glycation End (AGE) Product Formation
- •Cyclo-oxygenase (COX)
- •Flux Through Aldose Reductase (AR) Pathway
- •Activation of Protein Kinase C (PKC)
- •Endothelial NO Synthase (eNOS)
- •Inducible NOS (iNOS)
- •NADPH Oxidase
- •Antioxidants in Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Overview
- •Glutathione (GSH)
- •Superoxide Dismutase (SOD)
- •Catalase
- •Effects of Oxidative Stress in The Diabetic Retina
- •Overview
- •Growth Factors and Cytokines
- •Cytoxicity
- •Therapeutic Strategies For Reducing Oxidative Stress
- •Overview
- •Antioxidants
- •PKC Inhibitors
- •Inhibitors of the Renin-Angiotensin System
- •Inhibitors of the Polyol Pathway
- •HMG-CoA Reductase Inhibitors (Statins)
- •PEDF
- •Cannabinoids
- •Cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2) Inhibitors
- •References
- •Pericyte Loss in the Diabetic Retina
- •Introduction
- •Origin and Differentiation
- •Morphology and Distribution
- •Identification
- •Function
- •Contractility
- •Role in Vessel Formation and Stabilization
- •Loss In Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Rats
- •Mice
- •Chinese Hamster
- •Animal Models Mimicking Retinal Pericyte Loss
- •Pdgf-B-Pdgf-Ssr
- •Angiopoietin-Tie
- •Vegf-Vegfr2
- •Mechanisms of Loss
- •Biochemical Pathways
- •Aldose Reductase
- •Age Formation
- •Modification of Ldl
- •Loss Through Active Elimination
- •Capillary Dropout in Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Methods to Measure and Detect Capillary Dropout
- •Models to Study Retinal Capillary Dropout in Diabetes
- •Potential Mechanisms For Capillary Dropout
- •Capillary Cell Apoptosis
- •Proinflammatory Changes/Leukostasis
- •Microthrombosis/Platelet Aggregation
- •Consequences of Capillary Dropout
- •Macular Ischemia
- •Neovascularization
- •Macular Edema
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Neuroglial Dysfunction in Diabetic Retinopathy
- •The Neurons of The Retina
- •The Glial Cells of The Retina
- •Diabetes Reduces Retinal Function
- •Diabetes Induces Neurodegeneration in The Retina
- •Neuroinflammation in Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Historical Perspective on Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Neuroglial Dysfunction in Diabetic Retinopathy.
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Inflammatory Cells Promote and Regulate The Development of Ischemic Ocular Neovascularization
- •VEGF as a Proinflammatory Factor in Diabetic Retinopathy
- •VEGF164/165 as a Proinflammatory Cytokine
- •Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)
- •Corticosteroids
- •Anti-VEGF Agents
- •Pegaptanib
- •Ranibizumab and Bevacizumab
- •Conclusions
- •Acknowledgment
- •References
- •Glia-Endothelial Interaction
- •Specialized Retinal Vessels Control Flux into Neural Tissue
- •Overview of Tight Junction Proteins
- •Claudins Confer Tight Junction Barrier Properties
- •Occludin Regulates Barrier Properties
- •Alterations in Occludin in Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Ve-Cadherin and Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Permeability in Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Summary and Conclusions
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Stages of Angiogenesis
- •Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor
- •Regulation of Vegf Expression in The Retina
- •Regulation of VEGF in Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Regulation of VEGF in Nonproliferative Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Basic Vegf Biology
- •Receptors
- •Vegf’S Multiple Actions on Retinal Endothelial Cells
- •Main Signaling Pathways
- •Other Actions of Vegf
- •Proinflammatory Effects of VEGF
- •VEGF and Retinal Neuronal Development
- •VEGF and Neuroprotection
- •Modulation of Vegf Action By Other Growth Factors
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Insulin-Like Growth Factor
- •Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor
- •Angiopoietin
- •Erythropoietin
- •Hepatocyte Growth Factor
- •Tumor Necrosis Factor
- •Extracellular Proteinases
- •The Urokinase Plasminogen Activator System (uPA/uPAR System)
- •Proteinases in Retinal Neovascularization
- •Integrins
- •Endogenous Inhibitors of Neovascularization
- •Pigment Epithelium Derived Growth Factor
- •Angiostatin and Endostatin
- •Thrombospondin-1
- •Tissue Inhibitor of Matrix Metalloproteinases
- •Clinical Implications
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Pathogenesis
- •Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (Vegf)
- •Vegf in Physiological and Pathological Angiogenesis
- •Vegf in Ocular Neovascularization
- •Vegf and Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Clinical Application of Anti-VEGF Drugs
- •Pegaptanib
- •Bevacizumab
- •Ranibizumab
- •Use of Anti-VEGF Therapies in Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Safety
- •Clinical Experience with Bevacizumab in Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Ranibizumab in Diabetic Macular Edema
- •Effect on Foveal Thickness and Macular Volume
- •Effect on Visual Acuity
- •Summary
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Pkc Inhibition With Ruboxistaurin
- •Early Clinical Trials With Rbx
- •Rbx and Progression of Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Ongoing Trials With Rbx
- •Rbx and Other, Nonocular Complications of Diabetes
- •Safety Profile of Rbx
- •Clinical Status of Rbx
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •The Role of Intravitreal Steroids in the Management of Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Clinical Efficacy
- •Safety
- •Pharmacology
- •Pharmacokinetics
- •Combination With Laser Treatment
- •Clinical Guidelines
- •Macular Edema Caused by Focal Parafoveal Leak
- •Widespread Heavy Diffuse Leak
- •Macular Edema and High-Risk Proliferative Retinopathy
- •Macular Edema Prior to Cataract Surgery
- •Juxtafoveal Hard Exudate With Heavy Leak
- •Control of Systemic Risk Factors
- •The Future of Intravitreal Steroid Therapy
- •References
- •Overview
- •Introduction and Historical Perspective
- •Growth Hormone and Diabetic Retinopathy
- •The IGF-1 System and Retinopathy
- •The Role of SST in Diabetic Retinopathy
- •Rationale for the Clinical use of Octreotide
- •Clinical evidence for sst as a therapeutic for pdr
- •Potential Reasons for Mixed Success in Clinical Trials
- •Future Direction: Sst Analogs in Combination Therapy
- •Conclusion
- •Acknowledgements
- •Introduction
- •Diabetic Retinopathy and Mortality
- •Diabetic Retinopathy and Cerebrovascular Disease
- •Diabetic Retinopathy and Heart Disease
- •Diabetic Retinopathy, Nephropathy, and Neuropathy
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Name Index
Contributors
ANTHONY P. ADAMIS • Jerini Ophthalmic, Inc., New York, NY, USA
LLOYD P. AIELLO • Joslin Diabetes Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
DAVID A. ANTONETTI • Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology and Ophthalmology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, USA
ALISTAIR J. BARBER • The Penn State Retina Research Group, Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, USA
MICHAEL BOULTON • Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
SERGIO CABALLERO • Dept. of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
RUTH B. CALDWELL • Vascular Biology Center, Medical College of Georgia Augusta, GA
ROBERT W. CALDWELL • Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA
POOI-SEE CHAN • Kresge Eye Institute, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI
NING CHEUNG • Centre for Eye Research Australia,
the University of Melbourne, Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital, Melbourne
EMILY Y. CHEW • National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
RONALD P. DANIS • Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
ARUP DAS • Department of Surgery, and Cell Biology & Physiology,
University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM; New Mexico VA Health Care System, Albuquerque, NM
MATTHEW D. DAVIS • Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
DIANA V. DO • The Wilmer Eye Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
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Contributors |
ELIA J. DUH • The Wilmer Eye Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
AZZA E.B. EL-REMESSY • College of Pharmacy, University of Georgia, Augusta, GA
YUXI FENG • 5th Medical Department, University Hospital Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
FREDERICK L. FERRIS III • National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
THOMAS W. GARDNER • The Penn State Retina Research Group,
Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA
MARK C. GILLIES • Department of Clinical Ophthalmology,
Save Sight Institute, University of Sydney, Australia
MARIA B. GRANT • Dept. of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
JULIA A. HALLER • The Wilmer Eye Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
ROLA HAMAM • Joslin Diabetes Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
HANS-PETER HAMMES • 5th Medical Department, University Hospital Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
ANTONIA M. JOUSSEN • Department of Ophthalmology, University of Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
PETER K. KAISER • Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH
TIMOTHY S. KERN • Department of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH
GEORGE L. KING • Joslin Diabetes Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
RONALD KLEIN • Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI
RENU A. KOWLURU • Kresge Eye Institute, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI
ALEXANDER V. LJUBIMOV • Ophthalmology Research Laboratories, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center and Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA
MARA LORENZI • Schepens Eye Research Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
CHENG MAO-LIN • Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology and Ophthalmology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA
Contributors |
xi |
RON MARGOLIS • Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH
PAUL G. MCGUIRE • Department of Surgery, and Cell Biology & Physiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM
CATHERINE B. MEYERLE • National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
DEEPTI NAVARATNA • Department of Cell Biology & Physiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM
QUAN DONG NGUYEN • The Wilmer Eye Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
PETER J. OATES • Pfizer Global Research and Development, CVMED Department, Groton, CT
FREDERICK PFISTER • 5th Medical Department, University Hospital Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
MANVI PRAKASH • Joslin Diabetes Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
SYED MAHMOOD SHAH • The Wilmer Eye Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
ALAN W. STITT • Centre for Vision Science, Queens University of Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
CARLA STRIATA • Ophthalmology Europe, Pfizer Ltd UK
JENNIFER K. SUN • Joslin Diabetes Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
LAUREN E. SWENARCHUK • Zola Associates, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
HEATHER D. VANGUILDER • The Penn State Retina Research Group, Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA
LINDA E. WHETTER, DVM • Zola Associates, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
TIEN Y. WONG, FRANZCO • Centre for Eye Research Australia, the University of Melbourne, Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital, Melbourne
