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Файл:Ординатура / Офтальмология / Английские материалы / Computational Analysis of the Human Eye with Applications_Dua, Acharya, Ng_2011.pdf
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- •Contents
- •1.1. Introduction to the Eye
- •1.2. The Anatomy of the Human Visual System
- •1.3. Neurons
- •1.4. Synapses
- •1.5. Vision — Sensory Transduction
- •1.6. Retinal Processing
- •1.7. Visual Processing in the Brain
- •1.8. Biological Vision and Computer Vision Algorithms
- •References
- •2.1. Introduction to Computational Methods for Feature Detection
- •2.2. Preprocessing Methods for Retinal Images
- •2.2.1. Illumination Effect Reduction
- •2.2.1.1. Non-linear brightness transform
- •2.2.2. Image Normalization and Enhancement
- •2.2.2.1. Color channel transformations
- •2.2.2.3. Local adaptive contrast enhancement
- •2.2.2.4. Histogram transformations
- •2.3. Segmentation Methods for Retinal Anatomy Detection and Localization
- •2.3.1. A Boundary Detection Methods
- •2.3.1.1. First-order difference operators
- •2.3.1.2. Second-order boundary detection
- •2.3.1.3. Canny edge detection
- •2.3.2. Edge Linkage Methods for Boundary Detection
- •2.3.2.1. Local neighborhood gradient thresholding
- •2.3.2.2. Morphological operations for edge link enhancement
- •2.3.2.3. Hough transform for edge linking
- •2.3.3. Thresholding for Image Segmentation
- •2.3.3.1. Segmentation with a single threshold
- •2.3.3.2. Multi-level thresholding
- •2.3.3.3. Windowed thresholding
- •2.3.4. Region-Based Methods for Image Segmentation
- •2.3.4.1. Region growing
- •2.3.4.2. Watershed segmentation
- •2.4.1. Statistical Features
- •2.4.1.1. Geometric descriptors
- •2.4.1.2. Texture features
- •2.4.1.3. Invariant moments
- •2.4.2. Data Transformations
- •2.4.2.1. Fourier descriptors
- •2.4.2.2. Principal component analysis (PCA)
- •2.4.3. Multiscale Features
- •2.4.3.1. Wavelet transform
- •2.4.3.2. Scale-space methods for feature extraction
- •2.5. Summary
- •References
- •3.1.1. EBM Process
- •3.1.2. Evidence-Based Medical Issues
- •3.1.3. Value-Based Evidence
- •3.2.1. Economic Evaluation
- •3.2.2. Decision Analysis Method
- •3.2.3. Advantages of Decision Analysis
- •3.2.4. Perspective in Decision Analysis
- •3.2.5. Decision Tree in Decision Analysis
- •3.3. Use of Information Technologies for Diagnosis in Ophthalmology
- •3.3.1. Data Mining in Ophthalmology
- •3.3.2. Graphical User Interface
- •3.4. Role of Computational System in Curing Disease of an Eye
- •3.4.1. Computational Decision Support System: Diabetic Retinopathy
- •3.4.1.1. Wavelet-based neural network23
- •3.4.1.2. Content-based image retrieval
- •3.4.2. Computational Decision Support System: Cataracts
- •3.4.2.2. K nearest neighbors
- •3.4.2.3. GUI of the system
- •3.4.3. Computational Decision Support System: Glaucoma
- •3.4.3.1. Using fuzzy logic
- •3.4.4. Computational Decision Support System: Blepharitis, Rosacea, Sjögren, and Dry Eyes
- •3.4.4.1. Utility of bleb imaging with anterior segment OCT in clinical decision making
- •3.4.4.2. Computational decision support system: RD
- •3.4.4.3. Role of computational system
- •3.4.5. Computational Decision Support System: Amblyopia
- •3.4.5.1. Role of computational decision support system in amblyopia
- •3.5. Conclusion
- •References
- •4.1. Introduction to Oxygen in the Retina
- •4.1.1. Microelectrode Methods
- •4.1.2. Phosphorescence Dye Method
- •4.1.3. Spectrographic Method
- •4.1.6. HSI Method
- •4.2. Experiment One
- •4.2.1. Methods and Materials
- •4.2.1.1. Animals
- •4.2.1.2. Systemic oxygen saturation
- •4.2.1.3. Intraocular pressure
- •4.2.1.4. Fundus camera
- •4.2.1.5. Hyperspectral imaging
- •4.2.1.6. Extraction of spectral curves
- •4.2.1.7. Mapping relative oxygen saturation
- •4.2.1.8. Relative saturation indices (RSIs)
- •4.2.2. Results
- •4.2.2.1. Spectral signatures
- •4.2.2.2. Oxygen breathing
- •4.2.2.3. Intraocular pressure
- •4.2.2.4. Responses to oxygen breathing
- •4.2.2.5. Responses to high IOP
- •4.2.3. Discussion
- •4.2.3.1. Pure oxygen breathing experiment
- •4.2.3.2. IOP perturbation experiment
- •4.2.3.3. Hyperspectral imaging
- •4.3. Experiment Two
- •4.3.1. Methods and Materials
- •4.3.1.1. Animals, anesthesia, blood pressure, and IOP perturbation
- •4.3.1.3. Spectral determinant of percentage oxygen saturation
- •4.3.1.5. Preparation and calibration of red blood cell suspensions
- •4.3.2. Results
- •4.3.2.2. Oxygen saturation of the ONH
- •4.3.3. Discussion
- •4.3.4. Conclusions
- •4.4. Experiment Three
- •4.4.1. Methods and Materials
- •4.4.1.1. Compliance testing
- •4.4.1.2. Hyperspectral imaging
- •4.4.1.3. Selection of ONH structures
- •4.4.1.4. Statistical methods
- •4.4.2. Results
- •4.4.2.1. Compliance testing
- •4.4.2.2. Blood spectra from ONH structures
- •4.4.2.3. Oxygen saturation of ONH structures
- •4.4.2.4. Oxygen saturation maps
- •4.4.3. Discussion
- •4.5. Experiment Four
- •4.5.1. Methods and Materials
- •4.5.2. Results
- •4.5.3. Discussion
- •4.6. Experiment Five
- •4.6.1. Methods and Materials
- •4.6.1.3. Automatic control point detection
- •4.6.1.4. Fused image optimization
- •4.7. Conclusion
- •References
- •5.1. Introduction to Thermography
- •5.2. Data Acquisition
- •5.3. Methods
- •5.3.1. Snake and GVF
- •5.3.2. Target Tracing Function and Genetic Algorithm
- •5.3.3. Locating Cornea
- •5.4. Results
- •5.5. Discussion
- •5.6. Conclusion
- •References
- •6.1. Introduction to Glaucoma
- •6.1.1. Glaucoma Types
- •6.1.1.1. Primary open-angle glaucoma
- •6.1.1.2. Angle-closure glaucoma
- •6.1.2. Diagnosis of Glaucoma
- •6.2. Materials and Methods
- •6.2.1. c/d Ratio
- •6.2.2. Measuring the Area of Blood Vessels
- •6.2.3. Measuring the ISNT Ratio
- •6.3. Results
- •6.4. Discussion
- •6.5. Conclusion
- •References
- •7.1. Introduction to Temperature Distribution
- •7.3. Mathematical Model
- •7.3.1. The Human Eye
- •7.3.2. The Eye Tumor
- •7.3.3. Governing Equations
- •7.3.4. Boundary Conditions
- •7.4. Material Properties
- •7.5. Numerical Scheme
- •7.5.1. Integro-Differential Equations
- •7.6. Results
- •7.6.1. Numerical Model
- •7.6.2. Case 1
- •7.6.3. Case 2
- •7.6.4. Discussion
- •7.7. Parametric Optimization
- •7.7.1. Analysis of Variance
- •7.7.2. Taguchi Method
- •7.7.3. Discussion
- •7.8. Concluding Remarks
- •References
- •8.1. Introduction to IR Thermography
- •8.2. Infrared Thermography and the Measured OST
- •8.3. The Acquisition of OST
- •8.3.1. Manual Measures
- •8.3.2. Semi-Automated and Fully Automated
- •8.4. Applications to Ocular Studies
- •8.4.1. On Ocular Physiologies
- •8.4.2. On Ocular Diseases and Surgery
- •8.5. Discussion
- •References
- •9.1. Introduction
- •9.1.1. Preprocessing
- •9.1.1.1. Shade correction
- •9.1.1.2. Hough transform
- •9.1.1.3. Top-hat transform
- •9.1.2. Image Segmentation
- •9.1.2.1. The region approach
- •9.1.2.2. The gradient-based method
- •9.1.2.3. Edge detection
- •9.1.2.3.2. The second-order derivative methods
- •9.1.2.3.3. The optimal edge detector
- •9.2. Image Registration
- •9.4. Automated, Integrated Image Analysis Systems
- •9.5. Conclusion
- •References
- •10.1. Introduction to Diabetic Retinopathy
- •10.2. Data Acquisition
- •10.3. Feature Extraction
- •10.3.1. Blood Vessel Detection
- •10.3.2. Exudates Detection
- •10.3.3. Hemorrhages Detection
- •10.3.4. Contrast
- •10.4.1. Backpropagation Algorithm
- •10.5. Results
- •10.6. Discussion
- •10.7. Conclusion
- •References
- •11.1. Related Studies
- •11.2.1. Encryption
- •11.3. Compression Technique
- •11.3.1. Huffman Coding
- •11.4. Error Control Coding
- •11.4.1. Hamming Codes
- •11.4.2. BCH Codes
- •11.4.3. Convolutional Codes
- •11.4.4. RS Codes14
- •11.4.5. Turbo Codes14
- •11.5. Results
- •11.5.1. Using Turbo Codes for Transmission of Retinal Fundus Image
- •11.6. Discussion
- •11.7. Conclusion
- •References
- •12.1. Introduction to Laser-Thermokeratoplasty (LTKP)
- •12.2. Characteristics of LTKP
- •12.3. Pulsed Laser
- •12.4. Continuous-Wave Laser
- •12.5. Mathematical Model
- •12.5.1. Model Description
- •12.5.2. Governing Equations
- •12.5.3. Initial-Boundary Conditions
- •12.6. Numerical Scheme
- •12.6.1. Integro-Differential Equation
- •12.7. Results
- •12.7.1. Pulsed Laser
- •12.7.2. Continuous-Wave Laser
- •12.7.3. Thermal Damage Assessment
- •12.8. Discussion
- •12.9. Concluding Remarks
- •References
- •13.1. Introduction to Optical Eye Modeling
- •13.1.1. Ocular Measurements for Optical Eye Modeling
- •13.1.1.1. Curvature, dimension, thickness, or distance parameters of ocular elements
- •13.1.1.2. Three-dimensional (3D) corneal topography
- •13.1.1.3. Crystalline lens parameters
- •13.1.1.4. Refractive index
- •13.1.1.5. Wavefront aberration
- •13.1.2. Eye Modeling Using Contemporary Optical Design Software
- •13.1.3. Optical Optimization and Merit Function
- •13.2. Personalized and Population-Based Eye Modeling
- •13.2.1. Customized Eye Modeling
- •13.2.1.1. Optimization to the refractive error
- •13.2.1.2. Optimization to the wavefront measurement
- •13.2.1.3. Tolerance analysis
- •13.2.2. Population-Based Eye Modeling
- •13.2.2.1. Accommodative eye modeling
- •13.2.2.2. Ametropic eye modeling
- •13.2.2.3. Modeling with consideration of ocular growth and aging
- •13.2.2.4. Modeling for disease development
- •13.2.3. Validation of Eye Models
- •13.2.3.1. Point spread function and modulation transfer function
- •13.2.3.2. Letter chart simulation
- •13.2.3.3. Night/day vision simulation
- •13.3. Other Modeling Considerations
- •13.3.1. Stiles Crawford Effect (SCE)
- •13.3.1.2. Other retinal properties
- •13.3.1.4. Optical opacity
- •13.4. Examples of Ophthalmic Simulations
- •13.4.1. Simulation of Retinoscopy Measurements with Eye Models
- •13.4.2. Simulation of PR
- •13.5. Conclusion
- •References
- •14.1. Network Infrastructure
- •14.1.1. System Requirements
- •14.1.2. Network Architecture Design
- •14.1.4. GUI Design
- •14.1.5. Performance Evaluation of the Network
- •14.2. Image Analysis
- •14.2.1. Vascular Tree Segmentation
- •14.2.2. Quality Assessment
- •14.2.3. ON Detection
- •14.2.4. Macula Localization
- •14.2.5. Lesion Segmentation
- •14.2.7. Patient Demographics and Statistical Outcomes
- •14.2.8. Disease State Assessment
- •14.2.9. Image QA
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Index
Computer-Aided Diagnosis of Diabetic Retinopathy Stages
present the neural network classifier used. In Sec. 10.5, we show the results of the proposed method. In Secs. 10.6 and 10.7, we discuss the results and conclusion.
10.2. Data Acquisition
For this chapter, we have studied 120 retinal photographs of eyes with mild NPDR, moderate NPDR, and severe NPDR, PDR along with the images of normal eyes (data provided by the Kasturba Medical Hospital, Manipal, India). Images, taken by a fundus camera interfaced to a computer, were stored as 24-bit JPEG images of 256 × 256 pixels. The photographs in each group are described in 10.3. Figure 10.3 shows the optical images that belong to the normal eye and to eyes in the moderate, severe, and Proliferative DR stages.
Preprocessing was performed to remove nonuniform background, which may have been caused by nonuniform illumination or variations in the eye pigment color, from the fundus images. Adaptive histogram equalization was performed to solve this problem.13 This method computes several
(a) |
(b) |
(c) |
Fig. 10.3. Fundus images: (a) normal, (b) NPDR, and (c) PDR.
Table 10.1. Range of age and number of subjects in each group.
|
|
Mild |
Moderate |
Severe |
|
Types |
Normal |
NPDR |
NPDR |
NPDR |
PDR |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Age (years) |
3 2 ± 8 |
6 2 ± 15 |
5 8 ± 13 |
4 5 ± 12 |
7 0 ± 10 |
Number of Subjects |
4 0 |
1 4 |
1 3 |
1 3 |
4 0 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
305
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