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Файл:Ординатура / Офтальмология / Английские материалы / Computational Analysis of the Human Eye with Applications_Dua, Acharya, Ng_2011.pdf
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- •Contents
- •1.1. Introduction to the Eye
- •1.2. The Anatomy of the Human Visual System
- •1.3. Neurons
- •1.4. Synapses
- •1.5. Vision — Sensory Transduction
- •1.6. Retinal Processing
- •1.7. Visual Processing in the Brain
- •1.8. Biological Vision and Computer Vision Algorithms
- •References
- •2.1. Introduction to Computational Methods for Feature Detection
- •2.2. Preprocessing Methods for Retinal Images
- •2.2.1. Illumination Effect Reduction
- •2.2.1.1. Non-linear brightness transform
- •2.2.2. Image Normalization and Enhancement
- •2.2.2.1. Color channel transformations
- •2.2.2.3. Local adaptive contrast enhancement
- •2.2.2.4. Histogram transformations
- •2.3. Segmentation Methods for Retinal Anatomy Detection and Localization
- •2.3.1. A Boundary Detection Methods
- •2.3.1.1. First-order difference operators
- •2.3.1.2. Second-order boundary detection
- •2.3.1.3. Canny edge detection
- •2.3.2. Edge Linkage Methods for Boundary Detection
- •2.3.2.1. Local neighborhood gradient thresholding
- •2.3.2.2. Morphological operations for edge link enhancement
- •2.3.2.3. Hough transform for edge linking
- •2.3.3. Thresholding for Image Segmentation
- •2.3.3.1. Segmentation with a single threshold
- •2.3.3.2. Multi-level thresholding
- •2.3.3.3. Windowed thresholding
- •2.3.4. Region-Based Methods for Image Segmentation
- •2.3.4.1. Region growing
- •2.3.4.2. Watershed segmentation
- •2.4.1. Statistical Features
- •2.4.1.1. Geometric descriptors
- •2.4.1.2. Texture features
- •2.4.1.3. Invariant moments
- •2.4.2. Data Transformations
- •2.4.2.1. Fourier descriptors
- •2.4.2.2. Principal component analysis (PCA)
- •2.4.3. Multiscale Features
- •2.4.3.1. Wavelet transform
- •2.4.3.2. Scale-space methods for feature extraction
- •2.5. Summary
- •References
- •3.1.1. EBM Process
- •3.1.2. Evidence-Based Medical Issues
- •3.1.3. Value-Based Evidence
- •3.2.1. Economic Evaluation
- •3.2.2. Decision Analysis Method
- •3.2.3. Advantages of Decision Analysis
- •3.2.4. Perspective in Decision Analysis
- •3.2.5. Decision Tree in Decision Analysis
- •3.3. Use of Information Technologies for Diagnosis in Ophthalmology
- •3.3.1. Data Mining in Ophthalmology
- •3.3.2. Graphical User Interface
- •3.4. Role of Computational System in Curing Disease of an Eye
- •3.4.1. Computational Decision Support System: Diabetic Retinopathy
- •3.4.1.1. Wavelet-based neural network23
- •3.4.1.2. Content-based image retrieval
- •3.4.2. Computational Decision Support System: Cataracts
- •3.4.2.2. K nearest neighbors
- •3.4.2.3. GUI of the system
- •3.4.3. Computational Decision Support System: Glaucoma
- •3.4.3.1. Using fuzzy logic
- •3.4.4. Computational Decision Support System: Blepharitis, Rosacea, Sjögren, and Dry Eyes
- •3.4.4.1. Utility of bleb imaging with anterior segment OCT in clinical decision making
- •3.4.4.2. Computational decision support system: RD
- •3.4.4.3. Role of computational system
- •3.4.5. Computational Decision Support System: Amblyopia
- •3.4.5.1. Role of computational decision support system in amblyopia
- •3.5. Conclusion
- •References
- •4.1. Introduction to Oxygen in the Retina
- •4.1.1. Microelectrode Methods
- •4.1.2. Phosphorescence Dye Method
- •4.1.3. Spectrographic Method
- •4.1.6. HSI Method
- •4.2. Experiment One
- •4.2.1. Methods and Materials
- •4.2.1.1. Animals
- •4.2.1.2. Systemic oxygen saturation
- •4.2.1.3. Intraocular pressure
- •4.2.1.4. Fundus camera
- •4.2.1.5. Hyperspectral imaging
- •4.2.1.6. Extraction of spectral curves
- •4.2.1.7. Mapping relative oxygen saturation
- •4.2.1.8. Relative saturation indices (RSIs)
- •4.2.2. Results
- •4.2.2.1. Spectral signatures
- •4.2.2.2. Oxygen breathing
- •4.2.2.3. Intraocular pressure
- •4.2.2.4. Responses to oxygen breathing
- •4.2.2.5. Responses to high IOP
- •4.2.3. Discussion
- •4.2.3.1. Pure oxygen breathing experiment
- •4.2.3.2. IOP perturbation experiment
- •4.2.3.3. Hyperspectral imaging
- •4.3. Experiment Two
- •4.3.1. Methods and Materials
- •4.3.1.1. Animals, anesthesia, blood pressure, and IOP perturbation
- •4.3.1.3. Spectral determinant of percentage oxygen saturation
- •4.3.1.5. Preparation and calibration of red blood cell suspensions
- •4.3.2. Results
- •4.3.2.2. Oxygen saturation of the ONH
- •4.3.3. Discussion
- •4.3.4. Conclusions
- •4.4. Experiment Three
- •4.4.1. Methods and Materials
- •4.4.1.1. Compliance testing
- •4.4.1.2. Hyperspectral imaging
- •4.4.1.3. Selection of ONH structures
- •4.4.1.4. Statistical methods
- •4.4.2. Results
- •4.4.2.1. Compliance testing
- •4.4.2.2. Blood spectra from ONH structures
- •4.4.2.3. Oxygen saturation of ONH structures
- •4.4.2.4. Oxygen saturation maps
- •4.4.3. Discussion
- •4.5. Experiment Four
- •4.5.1. Methods and Materials
- •4.5.2. Results
- •4.5.3. Discussion
- •4.6. Experiment Five
- •4.6.1. Methods and Materials
- •4.6.1.3. Automatic control point detection
- •4.6.1.4. Fused image optimization
- •4.7. Conclusion
- •References
- •5.1. Introduction to Thermography
- •5.2. Data Acquisition
- •5.3. Methods
- •5.3.1. Snake and GVF
- •5.3.2. Target Tracing Function and Genetic Algorithm
- •5.3.3. Locating Cornea
- •5.4. Results
- •5.5. Discussion
- •5.6. Conclusion
- •References
- •6.1. Introduction to Glaucoma
- •6.1.1. Glaucoma Types
- •6.1.1.1. Primary open-angle glaucoma
- •6.1.1.2. Angle-closure glaucoma
- •6.1.2. Diagnosis of Glaucoma
- •6.2. Materials and Methods
- •6.2.1. c/d Ratio
- •6.2.2. Measuring the Area of Blood Vessels
- •6.2.3. Measuring the ISNT Ratio
- •6.3. Results
- •6.4. Discussion
- •6.5. Conclusion
- •References
- •7.1. Introduction to Temperature Distribution
- •7.3. Mathematical Model
- •7.3.1. The Human Eye
- •7.3.2. The Eye Tumor
- •7.3.3. Governing Equations
- •7.3.4. Boundary Conditions
- •7.4. Material Properties
- •7.5. Numerical Scheme
- •7.5.1. Integro-Differential Equations
- •7.6. Results
- •7.6.1. Numerical Model
- •7.6.2. Case 1
- •7.6.3. Case 2
- •7.6.4. Discussion
- •7.7. Parametric Optimization
- •7.7.1. Analysis of Variance
- •7.7.2. Taguchi Method
- •7.7.3. Discussion
- •7.8. Concluding Remarks
- •References
- •8.1. Introduction to IR Thermography
- •8.2. Infrared Thermography and the Measured OST
- •8.3. The Acquisition of OST
- •8.3.1. Manual Measures
- •8.3.2. Semi-Automated and Fully Automated
- •8.4. Applications to Ocular Studies
- •8.4.1. On Ocular Physiologies
- •8.4.2. On Ocular Diseases and Surgery
- •8.5. Discussion
- •References
- •9.1. Introduction
- •9.1.1. Preprocessing
- •9.1.1.1. Shade correction
- •9.1.1.2. Hough transform
- •9.1.1.3. Top-hat transform
- •9.1.2. Image Segmentation
- •9.1.2.1. The region approach
- •9.1.2.2. The gradient-based method
- •9.1.2.3. Edge detection
- •9.1.2.3.2. The second-order derivative methods
- •9.1.2.3.3. The optimal edge detector
- •9.2. Image Registration
- •9.4. Automated, Integrated Image Analysis Systems
- •9.5. Conclusion
- •References
- •10.1. Introduction to Diabetic Retinopathy
- •10.2. Data Acquisition
- •10.3. Feature Extraction
- •10.3.1. Blood Vessel Detection
- •10.3.2. Exudates Detection
- •10.3.3. Hemorrhages Detection
- •10.3.4. Contrast
- •10.4.1. Backpropagation Algorithm
- •10.5. Results
- •10.6. Discussion
- •10.7. Conclusion
- •References
- •11.1. Related Studies
- •11.2.1. Encryption
- •11.3. Compression Technique
- •11.3.1. Huffman Coding
- •11.4. Error Control Coding
- •11.4.1. Hamming Codes
- •11.4.2. BCH Codes
- •11.4.3. Convolutional Codes
- •11.4.4. RS Codes14
- •11.4.5. Turbo Codes14
- •11.5. Results
- •11.5.1. Using Turbo Codes for Transmission of Retinal Fundus Image
- •11.6. Discussion
- •11.7. Conclusion
- •References
- •12.1. Introduction to Laser-Thermokeratoplasty (LTKP)
- •12.2. Characteristics of LTKP
- •12.3. Pulsed Laser
- •12.4. Continuous-Wave Laser
- •12.5. Mathematical Model
- •12.5.1. Model Description
- •12.5.2. Governing Equations
- •12.5.3. Initial-Boundary Conditions
- •12.6. Numerical Scheme
- •12.6.1. Integro-Differential Equation
- •12.7. Results
- •12.7.1. Pulsed Laser
- •12.7.2. Continuous-Wave Laser
- •12.7.3. Thermal Damage Assessment
- •12.8. Discussion
- •12.9. Concluding Remarks
- •References
- •13.1. Introduction to Optical Eye Modeling
- •13.1.1. Ocular Measurements for Optical Eye Modeling
- •13.1.1.1. Curvature, dimension, thickness, or distance parameters of ocular elements
- •13.1.1.2. Three-dimensional (3D) corneal topography
- •13.1.1.3. Crystalline lens parameters
- •13.1.1.4. Refractive index
- •13.1.1.5. Wavefront aberration
- •13.1.2. Eye Modeling Using Contemporary Optical Design Software
- •13.1.3. Optical Optimization and Merit Function
- •13.2. Personalized and Population-Based Eye Modeling
- •13.2.1. Customized Eye Modeling
- •13.2.1.1. Optimization to the refractive error
- •13.2.1.2. Optimization to the wavefront measurement
- •13.2.1.3. Tolerance analysis
- •13.2.2. Population-Based Eye Modeling
- •13.2.2.1. Accommodative eye modeling
- •13.2.2.2. Ametropic eye modeling
- •13.2.2.3. Modeling with consideration of ocular growth and aging
- •13.2.2.4. Modeling for disease development
- •13.2.3. Validation of Eye Models
- •13.2.3.1. Point spread function and modulation transfer function
- •13.2.3.2. Letter chart simulation
- •13.2.3.3. Night/day vision simulation
- •13.3. Other Modeling Considerations
- •13.3.1. Stiles Crawford Effect (SCE)
- •13.3.1.2. Other retinal properties
- •13.3.1.4. Optical opacity
- •13.4. Examples of Ophthalmic Simulations
- •13.4.1. Simulation of Retinoscopy Measurements with Eye Models
- •13.4.2. Simulation of PR
- •13.5. Conclusion
- •References
- •14.1. Network Infrastructure
- •14.1.1. System Requirements
- •14.1.2. Network Architecture Design
- •14.1.4. GUI Design
- •14.1.5. Performance Evaluation of the Network
- •14.2. Image Analysis
- •14.2.1. Vascular Tree Segmentation
- •14.2.2. Quality Assessment
- •14.2.3. ON Detection
- •14.2.4. Macula Localization
- •14.2.5. Lesion Segmentation
- •14.2.7. Patient Demographics and Statistical Outcomes
- •14.2.8. Disease State Assessment
- •14.2.9. Image QA
- •Acknowledgments
- •References
- •Index
Rajendra Acharya U. et al.
6.1. Introduction to Glaucoma
Glaucoma is an optic neuropathy in which structural changes in the optic nerve head1 and a loss of retinal ganglion cells, in some perceivable patterns, occur. Worldwide, glaucoma affects about 0.5% of all people who are 50 years and younger. The percentage increases to 10% for the age group of 80 years old and older. These facts make glaucoma the second leading cause of blindness after diabetic retinopathy.2 Often, glaucoma is detected only after vision loss occurs. The increment in IOP in an eyeball, at times, inflicts damage on the optic nerve, which carries image information from light receptors in the retina to the brain. To date, this disease is incurable, the best we can achieve with current technology and understanding is to avoid the total loss of vision by early detecting the disease and as far as possible preventing the disease. There are two forms of glaucoma: primary openangle glaucoma and angle-closure glaucoma. Each type is briefly explained in the following sections.
6.1.1. Glaucoma Types
6.1.1.1. Primary open-angle glaucoma
Most glaucoma cases are open-angle glaucoma. This type occurs when the aqueous humor in eye drains too slowly over time, leading to a fluid build-up and gradual increase in IOP. Open-angle glaucoma is characterized by the fact that most entrances to the so-called drainage canals are clear, but unfortunately the insides of the canals become clogged, thus creating a problem that is similar to a clogged pipe below the drain in a sink.3 There is a chance that this clogging causes gradual vision loss. The damage to optic nerve is so slow and painless that many patients will be unaware of the development of this ocular disease. However, if diagnosed and treated, glaucoma usually responds well to medication.3
6.1.1.2. Angle-closure glaucoma
Angle-closure glaucoma is also known as narrow-angle glaucoma or acute glaucoma. It is both less common and different from open-angle glaucoma. This ocular disease can cause the loss of vision within a day of its onset. Angle-closure glaucoma has two causes either drainage canals are blocked
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