Ординатура / Офтальмология / Английские материалы / Automated Image Detection of Retinal Pathology_Jelinek, Cree_2009
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Automated
Image Detection
of RETINAL
PATHOLOGY
Automated
Image Detection
of RETINAL
PATHOLOGY
Edited by
HERBERT F. JELINEK
MICHAEL J. CREE
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
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International Standard Book Number: 978-0-8493-7556-9 (Hardback)
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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Automated image detection of retinal pathology / editors, Herbert Jelinek, Michael J.
Cree. |
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p. ; cm. |
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Includes bibliographical references and index. |
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ISBN 978-0-8493-7556-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) |
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1. Retina--Diseases--Imaging--Data processing. 2. Image processing--Digital |
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techniques. 3. Diabetic retinopathy--Imaging--Data processing. I. Jelinek, Herbert. II. |
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Cree, Michael J. |
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[DNLM: 1. Retinal Diseases-- |
diagnosis. 2. Diagnosis, Computer-Assisted. 3. |
Diagnostic Imaging--methods. 4. Retina--pathology. WW 270 A939 2010] |
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RE551.A98 2010 |
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617.7’350754--dc22 |
2009025019 |
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Preface |
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xiii |
Contributors |
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xvii |
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1 Introduction |
1 |
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H. F. Jelinek and M. J. Cree |
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1.1 |
Why Automated Image Detection of Retinal Pathology? . . . . . |
1 |
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1.1.1 The general clinical need . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
2 |
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1.1.2 |
Diabetes: A global problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
2 |
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1.1.3 |
Diabetic retinopathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
2 |
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1.1.4 Eye-screening for diabetic retinopathy . . . . . . . . . . . |
3 |
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1.1.5 |
Other retinal pathologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
5 |
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1.1.6 The retina as an indicator for disease elsewhere . . . . . . |
6 |
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1.1.7 |
Research needs in automated retinopathy detection . . . . |
6 |
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1.1.8 |
The engineering opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
7 |
1.2 |
Automated Assessment of Retinal Eye Disease . . . . . . . . . . |
7 |
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1.2.1 Automated microaneurysm detection in diabetic retinopathy |
8 |
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1.2.2 |
Hemorrhages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
9 |
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1.2.3 |
White lesion segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
9 |
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1.2.4 Localization of important markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
10 |
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1.2.5 Retinal vessel diameter changes in disease . . . . . . . . . |
11 |
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1.2.6 Retinal blood vessel segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
11 |
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1.2.7 Mathematical analysis of vessel patterns . . . . . . . . . . |
12 |
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1.3 |
The Contribution of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
13 |
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2 Diabetic Retinopathy and Public Health |
27 |
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D. Worsley and D. Simmons |
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2.1 |
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
27 |
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2.2 |
The Pandemic of Diabetes and Its Complications . . . . . . . . . |
28 |
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2.3 |
Retinal Structure and Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
29 |
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2.4 |
Definition and Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
35 |
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2.5 |
Classification of Diabetic Retinopathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
40 |
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2.6 |
Differential Diagnosis of Diabetic Retinopathy . . . . . . . . . . |
40 |
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2.7 |
Systemic Associations of Diabetic Retinopathy . . . . . . . . . . |
42 |
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2.7.1 |
Duration of diabetes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
42 |
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2.7.2 |
Type of diabetes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
42 |
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2.7.3 |
Blood glucose control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
42 |
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2.7.4 |
Blood pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
42 |
v
vi |
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CONTENTS |
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2.7.5 |
Serum lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
43 |
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2.7.6 |
Renal disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
43 |
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2.7.7 |
Anemia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
43 |
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2.7.8 |
Pregnancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
43 |
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2.7.9 |
Smoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
43 |
2.8 |
Pathogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
43 |
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2.8.1 |
Hyperglycemia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
43 |
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2.8.2 |
Hematological abnormalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
44 |
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2.8.3 |
Leukostasis and inflammation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
44 |
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2.8.4 |
Growth factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
44 |
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2.8.5 |
Neurodegeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
45 |
2.9 |
Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
45 |
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2.9.1 |
Management of systemic associations . . . . . . . . . . . |
45 |
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2.9.2 |
Ocular treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
45 |
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2.9.3 |
Investigational treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
46 |
2.10 |
Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
48 |
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2.10.1 |
Methods of screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
48 |
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2.10.2 |
Frequency of screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
54 |
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2.10.3 |
Cost effectiveness of screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
54 |
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2.10.4 |
Access to care and screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
54 |
2.11 |
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
55 |
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3 Detecting Retinal Pathology Automatically with Special Emphasis on |
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Diabetic Retinopathy |
67 |
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M. D. Abramoff` and M. Niemeijer |
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3.1 |
Historical Aside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
67 |
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3.2 |
Approaches to Computer (Aided) Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . |
68 |
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3.3 |
Detection of Diabetic Retinopathy Lesions . . . . . . . . . . . . |
70 |
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3.4 |
Detection of Lesions and Segmentation of Retinal Anatomy . . . |
71 |
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3.5 |
Detection and Staging of Diabetic Retinopathy: Pixel to Patient . |
71 |
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3.6 |
Directions for Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
72 |
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4 Finding a Role for Computer-Aided Early Diagnosis of Diabetic |
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Retinopathy |
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79 |
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L. B. Backlund¨ |
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4.1 |
Mass Examinations of Eyes in Diabetes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
79 |
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4.1.1 |
Motive for accurate early diagnosis of retinopathy . . . . . |
80 |
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4.1.2 |
Definition of screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
81 |
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4.1.3 |
Practical importance of the concept of screening . . . . . . |
81 |
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4.1.4 |
Coverage and timely re-examination . . . . . . . . . . . . |
81 |
4.2 |
Developing and Defending a Risk Reduction Program . . . . . . |
82 |
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4.2.1 |
Explaining why retinopathy is suitable for screening . . . . |
82 |
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4.2.2 |
Understanding reasons for possible criticism . . . . . . . . |
83 |
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4.2.3 |
Fulfilling criteria for screening tests . . . . . . . . . . . . |
83 |
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4.2.4 |
Setting quality assurance standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
84 |
CONTENTS |
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vii |
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4.2.5 |
Training and assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
84 |
4.3 |
Assessing Accuracy of a Diagnostic Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
84 |
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4.3.1 Predictive value, estimation, power . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
85 |
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4.3.2 Receiver operating characteristic curve . . . . . . . . . . . |
87 |
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4.3.3 |
Area under curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
89 |
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4.3.4 |
Covariates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
90 |
4.4 |
Improving Detection of Diabetic Retinopathy . . . . . . . . . . . |
90 |
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4.4.1 |
Improving work environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
91 |
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4.4.2 |
Going digital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
91 |
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4.4.3 |
Obtaining clear images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
91 |
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4.4.4 Avoiding loss of information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
92 |
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4.4.5 |
Viewing images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
92 |
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4.4.6 |
Ensuring accurate grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
93 |
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4.4.7 |
Organizing for success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
93 |
4.5 |
Measuring Outcomes of Risk Reduction Programs . . . . . . . . |
93 |
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4.5.1 Reducing new blindness and visual impairment . . . . . . |
94 |
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4.5.2 Counting people who lost vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
94 |
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4.5.3 |
Understanding the importance of visual impairment . . . . |
95 |
4.6 |
User Experiences of Computer-Aided Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . |
96 |
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4.6.1 Perceived accuracy of lesion detection . . . . . . . . . . . |
97 |
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4.6.2 Finding and reading evaluations of software for retinopathy |
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diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
101 |
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4.6.3 Opportunities and challenges for programmers . . . . . . . |
102 |
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4.7 |
Planning a Study to Evaluate Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
103 |
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4.7.1 Getting help from a statistician . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
103 |
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4.7.2 Choosing a measurement scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
103 |
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4.7.3 |
Optimizing design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
104 |
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4.7.4 Carrying out different phases of research . . . . . . . . . . |
108 |
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4.7.5 An example from another field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
109 |
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4.8 |
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
110 |
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4.A |
Appendix: Measures of Binary Test Performance . . . . . . . . . |
120 |
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5 Retinal Markers for Early Detection of Eye Disease |
121 |
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A. Osareh |
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5.1 |
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
121 |
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5.2 |
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
122 |
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5.3 |
Nonproliferative Diabetic Retinopathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
123 |
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5.4 |
Chapter Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
124 |
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5.5Related Works on Identification of Retinal Exudates and the Optic
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Disc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
128 |
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5.5.1 Exudate identification and classification . . . . . . . . . . |
128 |
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5.5.2 Optic disc detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
130 |
5.6 |
Preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
132 |
5.7 |
Pixel-Level Exudate Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
134 |
viii |
CONTENTS |
5.8Application of Pixel-Level Exudate Recognition on the Whole
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Retinal Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
137 |
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5.9 |
Locating the Optic Disc in Retinal Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
139 |
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5.9.1 |
Template matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
141 |
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5.9.2 |
Color morphology preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
141 |
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5.9.3 Accurate localization of the optic disc-based snakes . . . . |
144 |
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5.9.4 Optic disc localization results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
146 |
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5.10 |
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
148 |
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6 Automated Microaneurysm Detection for Screening |
155 |
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M. J. Cree |
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6.1 |
Characteristics of Microaneurysms and Dot-Hemorrhages . . . . |
155 |
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6.2 |
History of Automated Microaneurysm Detection . . . . . . . . . |
156 |
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6.2.1 |
Early morphological approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
156 |
6.2.2The “standard approach” to automated microaneurysm
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detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
157 |
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6.2.3 Extensions of the standard approach . . . . . . . . . . . . |
159 |
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6.2.4 |
Other approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
162 |
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6.2.5 General red lesion detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
164 |
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6.3 |
Microaneurysm Detection in Color Retinal Images . . . . . . . . |
165 |
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6.4 |
The Waikato Automated Microaneurysm Detector . . . . . . . . |
167 |
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6.4.1 Further comments on the use of color . . . . . . . . . . . |
171 |
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6.5 |
Issues for Microaneurysm Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
172 |
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6.5.1 |
Image quality assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
172 |
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6.5.2 |
Image compression implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
173 |
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6.5.3 |
Optic disc detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
175 |
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6.5.4 Meaningful comparisons of implementations . . . . . . . |
175 |
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6.6 |
Research Application of Microaneurysm Detection . . . . . . . . |
177 |
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6.7 |
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
178 |
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7 Retinal Vascular Changes as Biomarkers of Systemic Cardiovascular |
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Diseases |
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185 |
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N. Cheung, T. Y. Wong, and L. Hodgson |
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7.1 |
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
185 |
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7.2 |
Early Description of Retinal Vascular Changes . . . . . . . . . . |
186 |
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7.3 |
Retinal Vascular Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
187 |
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7.3.1 Assessment of retinal vascular signs from retinal photographs |
187 |
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7.3.2 Limitations in current retinal vascular imaging techniques . |
187 |
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7.4 |
Retinal Vascular Changes and Cardiovascular Disease . . . . . . |
189 |
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7.4.1 |
Hypertension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
189 |
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7.4.2 Stroke and cerebrovascular disease . . . . . . . . . . . . |
191 |
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7.4.3 |
Coronary heart disease and congestive heart failure . . . . |
193 |
7.5 |
Retinal Vascular Changes and Metabolic Diseases . . . . . . . . |
194 |
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7.5.1 |
Diabetes mellitus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
196 |
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7.5.2 |
The metabolic syndrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
196 |
CONTENTS |
|
ix |
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7.5.3 |
Overweight and obesity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
197 |
7.6 |
Retinal Vascular Changes and Other Systemic Diseases . . . . . . |
197 |
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7.6.1 |
Renal disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
197 |
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7.6.2 |
Atherosclerosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
198 |
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7.6.3 |
Inflammation and endothelial dysfunction . . . . . . . . . |
198 |
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7.6.4 |
Subclinical cardiac morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
200 |
7.7 |
Genetic Associations of Retinal Vascular Changes . . . . . . . . |
200 |
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7.8 |
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
201 |
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7.A |
Appendix: Retinal Vessel Caliber Grading Protocol . . . . . . . . |
201 |
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7.A.1 |
Grading an image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
202 |
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7.A.2 |
Example of the grading process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
204 |
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7.A.3 |
Obtaining results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
205 |
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7.A.4 |
Saving data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
206 |
8 Segmentation of Retinal Vasculature Using Wavelets and Supervised |
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Classification: Theory and Implementation |
221 |
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J. V. B. Soares and R. M. Cesar Jr. |
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8.1 |
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
221 |
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8.2 |
Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
224 |
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8.2.1 |
The 1-D CWT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
224 |
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8.2.2 |
The 2-D CWT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
225 |
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8.2.3 |
The 2-D Gabor wavelet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
228 |
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8.2.4 |
Supervised classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
229 |
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8.2.5 |
Bayesian decision theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
231 |
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8.2.6 |
Bayesian Gaussian mixture model classifier . . . . . . . . |
231 |
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8.2.7 |
k-nearest neighbor classifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
233 |
|
8.2.8 |
Linear minimum squared error classifier . . . . . . . . . . |
234 |
8.3Segmentation Using the 2-D Gabor Wavelet and Supervised
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Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
235 |
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8.3.1 |
Preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
235 |
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8.3.2 2-D Gabor wavelet features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
237 |
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8.3.3 |
Feature normalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
238 |
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8.3.4 |
Supervised pixel classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
239 |
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8.3.5 |
Public image databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
240 |
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8.3.6 |
Experiments and settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
241 |
|
8.3.7 |
ROC analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
242 |
8.4 Implementation and Graphical User Interface . . . . . . . . . . . |
245 |
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|
8.4.1 |
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
245 |
|
8.4.2 |
Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
246 |
|
8.4.3 |
Command line interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
246 |
|
8.4.4 |
Graphical user interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
247 |
8.5 |
Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
249 |
|
8.6 |
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
258 |
|
|
8.6.1 |
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
258 |
|
8.6.2 |
Future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
258 |