Электронный учебно-методический комплекс по учебной дисциплине Философия и методология науки для студентов, слушателей, осваивающих содержание образовательной программы высшего образования 2 ступени
.pdf4.Consider perspectives from all stakeholder groups.
5.Examine technological relations at a variety of levels. Technoethical design refers to the process of designing technologies
in an ethical manner, involving stakeholders in participatory design efforts, revealing hidden or tacit technological relations, and investigating what technologies make possible and how people will use them. TED involves the following four steps:
1.Ensure that the components and relations within the technological system are explicitly understood by those in the design context.
2.Perform a TEA to identify relevant technical knowledge.
3.Optimize the technological system in order to meet stakeholders' and affected individuals' needs and interests.
4.Consult with representatives of stakeholder and affected groups in order to establish consensus on key design issues.
Both TEA and TED rely on systems theory, a perspective that conceptualizes society in terms of events and occurrences resulting from investigating system operations. Systems theory assumes that complex ideas can be studied as systems with common designs and properties which can be further explained using systems methodology. The field of technoethics regards technologies as self-producing systems that draw upon external resources and maintain themselves through knowledge creation; these systems, of which humans are a part, are constantly in flux as relations between technology, nature, and society change. TEA attempts to elicit the knowledge, goals, inputs, and outputs that comprise technological systems. Similarly, TED enables designers to recognize technology's complexity and power, to include facts and values in their designs, and to contextualize technology in terms of what it makes possible and what makes it possible.
Recent advances in technology and their ability to transmit vast amounts of information in a short amount of time has changed the way information is being shared amongst co-workers and managers throughout organizations across the globe. Starting in the 1980s with information and communications technologies, organizations have seen an increase in the amount of technology that they rely on to communicate within and outside of the workplace. However, these implementations of technology in the workplace create various ethical concerns and in turn a need for further analysis of technology in organizations. As a result of this growing trend, a subsection of technoethics known as organizational technoethics has emerged to address these issues. Key scholarly contri-
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butions linking ethics, technology, and society can be found in a number of seminal works:
The Imperative of Responsibility: In Search of Ethics for the Technological Age.
On Technology, Medicine and Ethics.
The Real World of Technology.
Thinking Ethics in Technology: Hennebach Lectures and Papers, 1995-1996.
Technology and the Good Life.
Readings in the Philosophy of Technology.
Ethics and technology: Ethical issues in an age of information and communication technology.
This resulting scholarly attention to ethical issues arising from technological transformations of work and life has helped given rise to a number of key areas of technoethical inquiry under various research programs.
7.1.40. Research Methodology
―Methodology‖ implies more than simply the methods you intend to use to collect data. It is often necessary to include a consideration of the concepts and theories which underlie the methods. For instance, if you intend to highlight a specific feature of a sociological theory or test an algorithm for some aspect of information retrieval, or test the validity of a particular system, you have to show that you understand the underlying concepts of the methodology.
When you describe your methods it is necessary to state how you have addressed the research questions and/or hypotheses. The methods should be described in enough detail for the study to be replicated, or at least repeated in a similar way in another situation. Every stage should be explained and justified with clear reasons for the choice of your particular methods and materials.
There are many different ways to approach the research that fulfils the requirements of a dissertation. These may vary both within and between disciplines. It is important to consider the expectations and possibilities concerning research in your own field. You can do this by talking to your tutors and looking at dissertations written by former students on your course.
Never before has any civilization had the unique opportunity to enhance human performance on the scale that we will face in the near fu-
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ture. The convergence of nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology, and cognitive science is creating a set of powerful tools that have the potential to significantly enhance human performance as well as transform society, science, economics, and human evolution. As the NBIC convergence becomes more understood, the possibility that we may be able to enhance human performance in the three domains of therapy, augmentation, and designed evolution will become anticipated and even expected. In addition, NBIC convergence represents entirely new challenges for scientists, policymakers, and business leaders who will have, for the first time, vast new and powerful tools to shape markets, societies, and lifestyles. The emergence of NBIC convergence will challenge us in new ways to balance risk and return, threat and opportunity, and social responsibility and competitive advantage as we step into the 21st century.
STEM is an educational program developed to prepare primary and secondary students for college and graduate study in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. In addition to subjectspecific learning, STEM aims to foster inquiring minds, logical reasoning, and collaboration skills.
Educators break STEM down into seven standards of practice for educating science, technology, engineering, and mathematics students. For many years there has been a strong interest in logical studies at Berkeley. In 1957, a group of faculty members, most of them from the departments of Mathematics and Philosophy, initiated a pioneering interdisciplinary graduate program leading to the degree of Ph.D. in Logic and the Methodology of Science. ―Methodology of science‖ is here understood to mean primarily deductive ―metascience‖ – a study which takes sciences themselves, their structures and methods, as its subject matter and which is carried out by logical and mathematical means. Students in this program acquire a good understanding of the mathematical theory known as mathematical logic, which deals in a rigorous way with such central concepts as truth, definability, provability, and computability. They may then seek to contribute to this theory or to apply it. There are important areas of application in Mathematics, Philosophy, Computer Science, and elsewhere. Typical fields of study include:
o foundations of mathematics, including set theory, recursion theory, model theory, and theory of proofs,
o philosophical logic, including modal logic, o philosophy of mathematics,
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o logic in computer science and artificial intelligence, o theory of computational complexity,
o history of logic,
Ph.D. work in logic can also be carried out entirely within one of the departments of Mathematics, Philosophy, Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences. The program in Logic and the Methodology of Science is intended for students whose interests lie in more than one of these fields. It offers them the possibility of taking qualifying examinations in more than one of these subjects; indeed, they must do so. Dissertations in this program may be interdisciplinary in character; however, they may also lie entirely within just one of these fields.
7.1.41. Heuristic is a method for solving a problem
A heuristic technique, often called simply a heuristic, is any approach to problem solving, learning, or discovery that employs a practical method not guaranteed to be optimal or perfect, but sufficient for the immediate goals. Where finding an optimal solution is impossible or impractical, heuristic methods can be used to speed up the process of finding a satisfactory solution. Heuristics can be mental shortcuts that ease the cognitive load of making a decision. Examples of this method include using a rule of thumb, an educated guess, an intuitive judgment, guesstimate, stereotyping, profiling, or common sense.
Heuristics are strategies derived from previous experiences with similar problems. These strategies rely on using readily accessible, though loosely applicable, information to control problem solving in human beings, machines, and abstract issues. The most fundamental heuristic is trial and error, which can be used in everything from matching nuts and bolts to finding the values of variables in algebra problems.
Here are a few other commonly used heuristics, from George Pólya's 1945 book, How to Solve It:
If you are having difficulty understanding a problem, try drawing a picture.
If you can't find a solution, try assuming that you have a solution and seeing what you can derive from that.
If the problem is abstract, try examining a concrete example.
Try solving a more general problem first.
In psychology, heuristics are simple, efficient rules, learned or hardcoded by evolutionary processes, that have been proposed to explain how people make decisions, come to judgments, and solve problems
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typically when facing complex problems or incomplete information. Researchers test if people use those rules with various methods. These rules work well under most circumstances, but in certain cases lead to systematic errors or cognitive biases.
The study of heuristics in human decision-making was developed in the 1970s and 80s by Israeli psychologists Amos Tverskyand Daniel Kahneman, although the concept was originally introduced by Nobel laureate Herbert A. Simon. Simon's original, primary object of research was problem solving which showed that we operate within what he calls bounded rationality. He coined the term "satisficing", which denotes the situation where people seek solutions or accept choices or judgments that are "good enough" for their purposes, but could be optimized.
Rudolf Groner analyzed the history of heuristics from its roots in ancient Greece up to contemporary work in cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence. Gerd Gigerenzer focused on the "fast and frugal" properties of heuristics, i.e., using heuristics in a way that is principally accurate and thus eliminating most cognitive bias. Heuristics – like the recognition heuristic or the take-the-best heuristic – are viewed as special tools that tackle specific tasks under conditions of uncertainty and are organized in an "adaptive toolbox". From one particular batch of research, Gigerenzer and Wolfgang Gaissmaier found that both individuals and organizations rely on heuristics in an adaptive way. They also found that ignoring part of the information, rather than weighing all the options, can actually lead to more accurate decisions.
Heuristics, through greater refinement and research, have begun to be applied to other theories, or be explained by them. For example: the cognitive-experiential self-theory also is an adaptive view of heuristic processing. CEST breaks down two systems that process information. At some times, roughly speaking, individuals consider issues rationally, systematically, logically, deliberately, effortfully, and verbally. On other occasions, individuals consider issues intuitively, effortlessly, globally, and emotionally. From this perspective, heuristics are part of a larger experiential processing system that is often adaptive, but vulnerable to error in situations that require logical analysis.
In 2002, Daniel Kahneman and Shane Frederick proposed that cognitive heuristics work by a process called attribute substitution, which happens without conscious awareness. According to this theory, when somebody makes a judgment that is computationally complex, a rather easier calculated "heuristic attribute" is substituted. In effect, a cogni-
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tively difficult problem is dealt with by answering a rather simpler problem, without being aware of this happening. This theory explains cases where judgments fail to show regression toward the mean. Heuristics can be considered to reduce the complexity of clinical judgements in healthcare.
Anchoring and adjustment – Describes the common human tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered when making decisions. For example, in a study done with children, the children were told to estimate the number of jellybeans in a jar. Groups of children were given either a high or low "base" number. Children estimated the number of jellybeans to be closer to the anchor number that they were given.
Availability heuristic – A mental shortcut that occurs when people make judgments about the probability of events by the ease with which examples come to mind. For example, in a 1973 Tversky & Kahneman experiment, the majority of participants reported that there were more words in the English language that start with the letter K than for which K was the third letter. There are actually twice as many words in the English Language that have K as the third letter as those that start with K, but words that start with K are much easier to recall and bring to mind.
Representativeness heuristic – A mental shortcut used when making judgments about the probability of an event under uncertainty. Or, judging a situation based on how similar the prospects are to the prototypes the person holds in his or her mind. For example, in a 1982 Tversky and Kahneman experiment, participants were given a description of a woman named Linda. Based on the description, it was likely that Linda was a feminist. Eighty to ninety percent of participants, choosing from two options, chose that it was more likely for Linda to be a feminist and a bank teller than only a bank teller. The likelihood of two events cannot be greater than that of either of the two events individually. For this reason, the representativeness heuristic is exemplary of the conjunction fallacy.
Naïve diversification – When asked to make several choices at once, people tend to diversify more than when making the same type of decision sequentially.
Escalation of commitment – Describes the phenomenon where people justify increased investment in a decision, based on the cumulative prior investment, despite new evidence suggesting that the cost,
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starting today, of continuing the decision outweighs the expected benefit. This is related to the sunk cost fallacy.
Familiarity heuristic – A mental shortcut applied to various situations in which individuals assume that the circumstances underlying the past behavior still hold true for the present situation and that the past behavior thus can be correctly applied to the new situation. Especially prevalent when the individual experiences a high cognitive load.
Heuristics were also found to be used in the manipulation and creation of cognitive maps. Cognitive maps are internal representations of our physical environment, particularly associated with spatial relationships. These internal representations of our environment are used as memory as a guide in our external environment. It was found that when questioned about maps imaging, distancing, etc., people commonly made distortions to images. These distortions took shape in the regularization of images.
There are several ways that humans form and use cognitive maps. Visual intake is a key part of mapping. The first is by using landmarks. This is where a person uses a mental image to estimate a relationship, usually distance, between two objects. Second, is route-road knowledge, and this is generally developed after a person has performed a task and is relaying the information of that task to another person. Third, is survey. A person estimates a distance based on a mental image that, to them, might appear like an actual map. This image is generally created when a person's brain begins making image corrections. These are presented in five ways: 1. Right-angle bias is when a person straightens out an image, like mapping an intersection, and begins to give everything 90-degree angles, when in reality it may not be that way. 2. Symmetry heuristic is when people tend to think of shapes, or buildings, as being more symmetrical than they really are. 3. Rotation heuristic is when a person takes a naturally distorted image and straightens it out for their mental image. 4. Alignment heuristic is similar to the previous, where people align objects mentally to make them straighter than they really are. 5. Relative-position heuristic: people do not accurately distance landmarks in their mental image based on how well they remember that particular item.
Another method of creating cognitive maps is by means of auditory intake based on verbal descriptions. Using the mapping based from a person's visual intake, another person can create a mental image, such as directions to a certain location.
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"Heuristic device" is used when an entity X exists to enable understanding of, or knowledge concerning, some other entity Y. A good example is a model that, as it is never identical with what it models, is a heuristic device to enable understanding of what it models. Stories, metaphors, etc., can also be termed heuristic in that sense. A classic example is the notion of utopia as described in Plato's best-known work, The Republic. This means that the "ideal city" as depicted in The Republic is not given as something to be pursued, or to present an orientation-point for development; rather, it shows how things would have to be connected, and how one thing would lead to another (often with highly problematic results), if one would opt for certain principles and carry them through rigorously.
"Heuristic" is also often used as a noun to describe a rule-of-thumb, procedure, or method. Philosophers of science have emphasized the importance of heuristics in creative thought and constructing scientific theories. In legal theory, especially in the theory of law and economics, heuristics are used in the law when case-by-case analysiswould be impractical, insofar as "practicality" is defined by the interests of a governing body.
The present securities regulation regime largely assumes that all investors act as perfectly rational persons. In truth, actual investors face cognitive limitations from biases, heuristics, and framing effects.
For instance, in all states in the United States the legal drinking age for unsupervised persons is 21 years, because it is argued that people need to be mature enough to make decisions involving the risks of alcohol consumption. However, assuming people mature at different rates, the specific age of 21 would be too late for some and too early for others. In this case, the somewhat arbitrary deadline is used because it is impossible or impractical to tell whether an individual is sufficiently mature for society to trust them with that kind of responsibility. Some proposed changes, however, have included the completion of an alcohol education course rather than the attainment of 21 years of age as the criterion for legal alcohol possession. This would put youth alcohol policy more on a case-by-case basis and less on a heuristic one, since the completion of such a course would presumably be voluntary and not uniform across the population.
The same reasoning applies to patent law. Patents are justified on the grounds that inventors must be protected so they have incentive to invent. It is therefore argued that it is in society's best interest that inven-
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tors receive a temporary government-granted monopoly on their idea, so that they can recoup investment costs and make economic profit for a limited period. In the United States, the length of this temporary monopoly is 20 years from the date the application for patent was filed, though the monopoly does not actually begin until the application has matured into a patent. However, like the drinking-age problem above, the specific length of time would need to be different for every product to be efficient. A 20-year term is used because it is difficult to tell what the number should be for any individual patent. More recently, some, including University of North Dakota law professor Eric E. Johnson, have argued that patents in different kinds of industries – such as software patents – should be protected for different lengths of time.
Stereotyping is a type of heuristic that all people use to form opinions or make judgments about things they have never seen or experienced. They work as a mental shortcut to assess everything from the social status of a person based on their actions to assumptions that a plant that is tall, has a trunk, and has leaves is a tree even though the person making the evaluation has never seen that particular type of tree before.
Stereotypes, as first described by journalist Walter Lippmann in his book Public Opinion, are the pictures we have in our heads that are built around experiences as well as what we are told about the world.
The concept of heuristics has not only followers in academic world, but also critiques and controversies. Many scholars do not like to accept idea of heuristics and biases. The followers think that is only because they do not want to research this subject. Heuristic may also refer to:
Heuristic (computer science), a technique to produce a solution in a reasonable time frame that is good enough for solving the problem at hand
Heuristic, an experience-based method reducing use of calcula-
tions
Heuristic algorithm, a computer program for making a determi-
nation
Heuristics in judgment and decision-making discovered by research in psychology and behavioral economics
Heuristic argument, a non-rigorous argument that relies on an analogy or intuition
Heuristic function, a ranking method used with search algo-
rithms
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TIPS was developed by the Soviet inventor and science-fiction author G. Altshuller and his colleagues, beginning in 1946. In English the name is typically rendered as "the theory of inventive problem solving", and occasionally goes by the English acronym TIPS.
Following Altshuller's insight, the theory developed on a foundation of extensive research covering hundreds of thousands of inventions across many different fields to produce a theory which defines generalisable patterns in the nature of inventive solutions and the distinguishing characteristics of the problems that these inventions have overcome.
An important part of the theory has been devoted to revealing patterns of evolution and one of the objectives which has been pursued by leading practitioners of TRIZ has been the development of an algorithmic approach to the invention of new systems, and to the refinement of existing ones. TRIZ includes a practical methodology, tool sets, a knowledge base, and model-based technology for generating innovative solutions for problem solving. It is intended for application in problem formulation, system analysis, failure analysis, and patterns of system evolution. There is a general similarity of purposes and methods with the field of pattern language, a cross discipline practice for explicitly describing and sharing holistic patterns of design.
The research has produced three primary findings:
1.problems and solutions are repeated across industries and sci-
ences
2.patterns of technical evolution are also repeated across industries and sciences
3.the innovations used scientific effects outside the field in which they were developed
TRIZ practitioners apply all these findings in order to create and to improve products, services, and systems. TRIZ in its classical form was developed by the Soviet inventor and science fiction writer Genrich Altshuller and his associates. He started developing TRIZ in 1946 His work on what later resulted in TRIZ was interrupted in 1950 by his arrest and sentencing to 25 years in the Vorkuta Gulaglabor camps. The arrest was partially triggered by letters which he and Raphael Shapiro sent to Stalin, ministers and newspapers about certain decisions made by the Soviet Government, which they believed were erroneous. Altshuller and Shapiro were freed during the Khrushchev Thaw following Stalin's death in 1953 and returned to Baku.
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