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11.Lost civilizations. Endangered languages. What can we learn from the past of humanity?

Throughout history, great civilizations like Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and the Maya have risen and fallen. Their ruins remind us how complex and fragile societies can be. Along with them, many languages have disappeared, taking unique cultures and knowledge with them.

Civilizations can collapse due to natural disasters, war, disease, climate change, or internal issues. The Maya, for example, faced both environmental and political problems. These stories teach us to care for the planet and be adaptable.

Languages are also at risk—nearly half of the world’s 7,000 languages are endangered. Each language reflects a unique culture and worldview. When a language dies, we lose part of humanity’s shared knowledge. Colonization, globalization, and the spread of dominant languages like English and Spanish contribute to this loss.

By learning from the past, we appreciate the fragility of human achievements and the need to protect cultural heritage. Museums, archaeology, and linguistic research connect us to our ancestors and enrich our present.

History reminds us that progress isn’t guaranteed, but creativity, resilience, and cultural diversity help us survive. In the end, lost civilizations and dying languages show not just what’s gone, but what we can still remember and protect.

12.European conquest of the New World. Exterminated tribes. Colonial legacy.

The European conquest of the New World, starting in the late 15th century, was one of the most transformative and tragic chapters in human history. It changed continents and cultures, often at a great human cost. Among its worst results was the killing of numerous indigenous groups and the lasting colonial legacy that still affects societies today.

When Europeans—mainly Spanish, Portuguese, English, and French—arrived in the Americas, they encountered diverse native civilizations with rich languages and traditions. But conquest brought war, slavery, and deadly diseases like smallpox. The combination led to the catastrophic decline of indigenous populations, often described as genocide.

This destruction was not only physical, but also cultural. Native languages, customs, and beliefs were forced to disappear. Colonizers forced their religion, language, and systems of power on the people. As a result, deep social and racial differences were formed—many of which still exist today.

The language of colonization often described indigenous peoples as “savages,” to excuse taking their land and resources. These narratives shaped public opinion for centuries and still affect how history is taught and understood. Today, decolonizing history means giving voice to indigenous perspectives and challenging Eurocentric views.

Despite centuries of oppression, many indigenous groups have preserved their identities and continue to fight for rights, land, and cultural survival. Scholars, educators, and activists are now working to recognize these histories and support reconciliation.

In conclusion, the European conquest almost destroyed many native groups and left a complicated impact. To make progress, we need to learn about this history and help bring back indigenous voices, cultures, and fairness.

13.Technological progress: pros and cons. Name the invention which has shaped the life of humanity. Can you predict

what other achievement in the sphere of technology might become a reality in 20 years?

Technological progress has dramatically changed the way we live, work, and communicate. Throughout history, inventions like electricity, the internet, smartphones, and artificial intelligence have had a profound impact on modern life. These innovations have improved healthcare, education, and communication, making our lives more convenient.

The internet, for example, has revolutionized how we access information and interact with people around the world. Smartphones allow us to work, study, and socialize from almost anywhere, increasing efficiency but also blurring the line between personal and professional life. Medical technologies have improved patient care, and AI is already transforming industries, from healthcare to transportation.

At the same time, these advances bring challenges. Technology can lead to job losses as machines replace human labor. It can also cause digital addiction, social isolation, and privacy concerns. Not everyone has equal access to new technologies, which creates a digital divide and increases inequality. The fast pace of change can be difficult for many to keep up with.

If I had to choose one invention that has shaped humanity most, I would say it’s the internet. It has transformed communication, business, entertainment, and education by making information instantly accessible and connecting billions of people.

Looking 20 years into the future, I predict that artificial intelligence and robotics will become even more advanced and integrated into our daily lives. We may soon see fully autonomous vehicles, advanced robots in medicine, and immersive virtual used in classrooms and homes. These changes will open new possibilities but also require careful thought about ethics, employment, and how we interact as a society.

In conclusion, new technology gives us big opportunities, but also serious challenges. We should use it wisely, make it available to everyone, and be ready for constant change.

14.“The human body is the only machine for which there are no spare parts.” Hermann M. Biggs (an American

physician and pioneer in the field of public health who helped apply the science of bacteriology to the prevention and control of infectious diseases).

Herman M. Biggs, a leader in public health, once pointed out an important fact: unlike machines, the human body cannot be completely fixed or replaced. His words remind us how important health is and why stopping illness before it happens is better than just treating it.

We often compare the body to a machine—calling the heart a pump or the brain a processor. But the body isn’t like a machine with extra parts ready to change when something breaks. While medicine can replace some organs, it’s never as easy as swapping a piece. That’s why taking care of how we live, keeping clean, and getting help early is very important.

Biggs was one of the first to use the study of germs to improve public health. He worked on teaching people and stopping diseases like tuberculosis and diphtheria before they spread, instead of only treating them—a way that is still important today.

The words we use also affect how we think about health. Phrases like “burn out” or “recharge” show how we understand our body and mind limits. During the COVID-19 pandemic, words like “flatten the curve” helped guide people’s actions. But it’s also important not to use words that blame sick people, because that can cause shame.

In conclusion, Biggs’s words are a powerful reminder: our bodies are not replaceable, and good health cannot be taken for granted. Both medicine and language should support a culture of prevention, respect, and responsibility.

15.What are the most effective methods of learning a subject? Speak on the ways of taking notes when listening to a

lecture. What strategies do you employ to do a research? To make a report? What problems does an English learner face?

Learning a subject well depends on using good study habits and strategies. One key method is taking clear notes during lessons. Different note-taking methods can help: the Cornell method, which splits the page into notes, questions, and summary; mind mapping, which shows how ideas connect; and outlining, which helps organize information step by step. The best method depends on the subject and learning style.

When I do research, I start with a clear question. Then I collect information from reliable sources like academic books, journals, and trusted websites. I take notes and group them by topic. Digital tools can help with organizing and saving sources. This makes the report-writing process much easier.

To write a good report, I begin with an outline — introduction, body, and conclusion. I write a draft, making sure my ideas are clear and supported with evidence. Then I revise it to fix grammar and style. Time management is very important in this process.

Learning English often presents numerous difficulties for students. Grammar and vocabulary take time to learn, but the biggest challenge is often understanding native speech. People speak fast, use slang, or have different accents. It’s also hard to speak fluently without enough practice. To improve English, learners should regularly practice speaking, expand their vocabulary and immerse themselves in the language through books, films and conversations. For me, the most effective methods are to learn a language through podcasts, movies, and live speech.

In conclusion, learning effectively means choosing the right note-taking method, planning research well, and writing clearly. Learning English takes time and effort, but with regular practice and good tools, it becomes easier.

16.Define the role of computers in language learning and linguistics. How has it changed in the last 50 years? How can

computers assist in communication?

Over the last 50 years, computers have greatly changed language learning and linguistics. In the 1970s–80s, they were used for grammar and vocabulary practice. In research, computers helped collect and study large text corpora, which improved dictionaries and grammar books.

With the internet, Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) became more interactive. Learners could use videos, audio, forums, and later, smart apps like Quizlet or Memrise. Tools like Grammarly and DeepL help people write and translate better.

In linguistics, computers now analyze speech, sentence structure, and even emotions in text. Natural Language Processing (NLP) lets computers understand and produce language, which helps in teaching, translation, and research.

Computers also support cross-cultural communication. Though machine translation is not perfect, because automatic translation can miss the emotional tone of the conversation, struggle with grammar or mistranslate idioms. In any case, it helps people understand each other. Speech-to-text and instant translation tools are useful in travel, education, and business, as it helps people getting out of awkward situations without knowing the language.

Nevertheless, certain issues remain. Machine translation can miss details. Overusing digital tools may reduce real communication and cultural experience. Also, most tools focus on popular languages, ignoring others.

In conclusion, computers are powerful tools for language learning and research. They make learning easier and faster, but they should support — not replace — human contact and cultural knowledge.