11. Numerals (cardinals and ordinals). General characteristics.

Numerals are words or symbols that denote numbers and are fundamental to communication in various contexts, including mathematics, timekeeping, and everyday counting. They are generally divided into two main types: cardinal and ordinal numerals.

Cardinal Numerals

Cardinal numerals represent quantity. They answer the question "How many?" and are used for counting objects.

Ordinal Numerals

Ordinal numerals indicate position or rank in a sequential order. They answer the question "Which one?" and are used to show the order of items.

12. Substantivization of numerals.

Like adjectives, numerals can be substantivized. Substantivized numerals acquire the following characteristics of nouns.

1. A generalized grammatical meaning of 'thingness'.

2. Ability to be used in the plural.

3. Combinability with articles and prepositions.

4. The syntactic functions of subject and object.

Cardinal numerals are more often substantivized than ordinal numerals.

On the other hand, some nouns turn into numerals, e.g. pair, dozen, score, etc. When they become numerals, they lose the grammatical category of number and the head noun is usually introduced without the preposition of, e.g.: 24 is two dozen

13. Number of Articles

Number of Articles

Articles are a fundamental component of English grammar, functioning as determiners that introduce and specify nouns. There are three articles in English: "a," "an," and "the." These articles are classified into two main types: indefinite articles ("a" and "an") and the definite article ("the"). Each type serves a distinct purpose in conveying information about the noun it precedes.

Indefinite Articles: "a" and "an"

General Characteristics

1. Non-Specific Reference: Indefinite articles are used when referring to a non-specific item or entity. They introduce nouns that are not uniquely identifiable to the listener or reader.

2. Singular Nouns: Indefinite articles are used exclusively with singular countable nouns.

3. Choice Between "a" and "an": The choice between "a" and "an" depends on the initial sound of the following word.

- "a" is used before words that begin with a consonant sound.

- "an" is used before words that begin with a vowel sound.

Definite Article: "the"

General Characteristics

1. Specific Reference: The definite article "the" is used when referring to a specific item or entity that is known to the listener or reader.

2. Singular and Plural Nouns: The definite article can be used with both singular and plural nouns, as well as uncountable nouns.

- Singular: "the book"

- Plural: "the books"

- Uncountable: "the water"

3. Unique Entities: "The" is used to refer to unique entities that are one of a kind or universally recognized.

General Characteristics of Articles

1. Introduction and Specification: Articles help introduce and specify nouns, guiding the listener or reader in understanding whether the noun is being referred to in a specific or general context.

2. Definiteness: Articles indicate the definiteness of the noun. Indefinite articles ("a" and "an") suggest a general, unspecified noun, while the definite article ("the") indicates a specific, identifiable noun.

3. Omission of Articles: In some cases, articles are omitted, especially with plural and uncountable nouns when speaking generally.