6. Conjunctions (coordinators and subordinators);

Conjunctions are words used to connect clauses, sentences, or words, ensuring smooth and coherent communication. They are essential in creating complex and compound sentences, thereby allowing for more nuanced expression. Conjunctions are broadly categorized into two types: coordinators and subordinators.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions, also known as coordinators, connect words, phrases, or independent clauses that are of equal syntactic importance. The most common coordinating conjunctions in English can be remembered using the acronym

1. For: Explains reason or purpose (similar to "because").

- Example: "She stayed home, for she was feeling sick."

2. And: Adds one thing to another.

- Example: "I bought apples and oranges."

3. Nor: Presents a negative alternative.

- Example: "He didn’t call, nor did he text."

4. But: Shows contrast.

- Example: "She is small but strong."

5. Or: Presents an alternative or choice.

- Example: "Would you like tea or coffee?"

6. Yet: Introduces a contrasting idea (similar to "but").

- Example: "It was raining, yet we went for a walk."

7. So: Indicates a result or consequence.

- Example: "He was tired, so he went to bed early."

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions, or subordinators, connect an independent clause with a dependent clause, establishing a relationship between the two. These relationships can denote time, cause and effect, contrast, condition, and more. Some common subordinating conjunctions include:

1. After: Indicates time.

- Example: "We went out to eat after we finished our work."

2. Although: Shows contrast.

- Example: "Although it was raining, we went for a hike."

3. Because: Indicates reason.

- Example: "She left early because she had an appointment."

4. Before: Indicates time.

- Example: "Call me before you leave."

5. If: Indicates condition.

- Example: "If it rains, we will stay indoors."

6. Since: Indicates time or reason.

- Example: "Since you’re here, you can help me."

- Example: "I’ve known her since we were children."

7. Unless: Indicates exception.

- Example: "You can’t go unless you finish your homework."

8. While: Shows time or contrast.

- Example: "She read a book while waiting for the bus."

- Example: "While he is friendly, he can be very reserved."

Usage and Importance

1. Creating Complex Sentences: Conjunctions allow writers and speakers to create complex sentences that convey detailed information and nuanced relationships between ideas. For example, "I will go to the store if it stops raining" expresses a condition that must be met.

2. Clarifying Relationships: Subordinating conjunctions help clarify the relationships between different parts of a sentence. For instance, "Because it was raining, we stayed inside" clearly shows the cause-and-effect relationship.

3. Enhancing Cohesion: By linking clauses and sentences, conjunctions enhance the cohesion of texts, making them easier to read and understand. They help in guiding the reader through the flow of ideas smoothly.

7. wh-words;

WH-words — это вопросительные слова, которые используются для построения специальных вопросов. Такое название они получили, потому что начинаются с wh (what, where) или содержат буквы w и h (how).

Nouns

• what, whatever

• who, whoever

• whom, whomever

Adjectives

• whose

• which, whichever

Adverbs

• when, whenever

• where, wherever

• why

• how, however

8. Existential there;

The existential "there" is a grammatical construction used in English to indicate the existence of something. It typically introduces the presence of a person, object, or situation, often making sentences less direct and more informative. This construction is essential for discussing the presence or occurrence of things in a general or indefinite way.

Structure and Usage

The basic structure of an existential "there" sentence is:

There + a form of the verb "to be" + subject + (adverbial phrase).

Functions of Existential There

Existence: To indicate the existence of something.

"There is a solution to every problem."

Occurrence: To denote the occurrence of an event.

"There was an accident on the highway."

Quantity: To express quantities or amounts, especially with countable and uncountable nouns.

"There are three cookies left."

"There is some milk in the fridge."

Presence: To show the presence of someone or something in a particular place.

"There are many students in the library."

9. The negator not;

The negator "not" is a fundamental element in English grammar used to create negative statements, questions, and commands. It is a versatile word that can negate verbs, adjectives, and other parts of speech, altering the meaning of a sentence to express the absence, denial, or contradiction of an action, state, or quality.

Auxiliary Verbs

When negating sentences with auxiliary verbs (such as "be," "have," "do," "can," "will," "shall," "may," "must"), "not" is placed after the auxiliary verb

Modal Verbs

Modal verbs (can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must) are negated by placing "not" immediately after the modal verb

10. The infinitive marker to;

The infinitive marker "to" is a key component in English grammar, used to form the base form of a verb, known as the infinitive. It is an essential part of constructing sentences that express purpose, intention, or future actions.

Basic Usage

Forming Infinitives

"To" precedes the base form of a verb to create the infinitive:

"to eat"

"to run"

"to be"

Expressing Purpose

Infinitives are often used to express the purpose of an action:

"I went to the store to buy groceries."

"She studies hard to get good grades."

Following Certain Verbs and Adjectives

Some verbs and adjectives are followed by an infinitive with "to":

"He wants to learn Spanish."

"She is eager to start the project."