ЗЧО Стилистика
.pdf1. Definitions of style. Subject of stylistics.
Style is the way in which an author writes and/or tells a story. It’s what sets one author apart from another and creates the “voice” that audiences hear when they read. There are many important pieces that together make up a writer’s style; like tone, word choice, grammar, language, descriptive technique, and so on. Style is also what determines the mood of a piece of literature, so its importance is huge across all genres.
Stylisitics is a branch of general linguistics, which deals with the following two interdependent tasks:
a)studies the totality of special linguistic means ( stylistic devices and expressive means ) which secure the desirable effect of the utterance;
b)studies certain types of texts "discourse" which due to the choice and arrangement of the language are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of communication (functional styles).
Galperin
The subject-matter of stylistics can be outlined as the study of the nature, functions and structure of stylistic devices, on the one hand, and, on the other, the study of each style of language as classified, its aim, its structure, its characteristic features and the effect it produces, as well as its interrelation with other styles of language.
2. Varieties of the English language. The peculiarities of written variety of English language (lexical and syntactical)
The actual situation of the communication has evolved two varieties of language— t he s p o k e n and the written. The varying aims of the communication have caused the literary language to fall into a number of self-sufficient systems (functional styles of language).
Of the two varieties of language, dlachronically the spoken is primary and the written is secondary. Each of these varieties has developed its own features and qualities which in many ways may be regarded ‘as opposed to each other.The situation in which the spoken variety of language is used and in which it develops, can be described concisely as the presence of an interlocutor. The written variety, on the contrary, presupposes the absence of an interlocutor. The spoken language is maintained in the form of a dialogue, the written in the form of a monologue. The spoken language has a considerable advantage over the written, in that 'the human voice comes into play. This is a powerful means of modulating the utterance, as are all kinds of gestures, which, together with the intonation, give additional information.
The peculiarities of written variety of English language (lexical and syntactical)
The written language has to seek means to compensate for what it lacks. This is the reason why the written language is more carefully organized, more explanatory, the word choice is more deliberate. The written language is able to live forever with the idea it expresses.
The written language is characterized by
•the exact nature of the utterance (the abundance of all kinds of connecting words))
•the bookish "space-wasters" (despite the fact; reach a decision)
•the use of complicated sentence-units (long periods are more frequent than short utterances)
3.The peculiarities of written variety of English language (Lexical and syntactical)
English language is known for its diversity and flexibility, with numerous variations depending on the region, social status, and context in which it is used. One of the key aspects that contributes to this diversity is the written variety of English, which encompasses a wide range of lexical and syntactical peculiarities.
One of the most notable features of the written variety of English is its extensive vocabulary. English is a language that has borrowed words from various other languages over the centuries, resulting in a rich and diverse lexicon. This extensive vocabulary allows for a great deal of precision and nuance in written communication, as writers can choose from a wide range of words to express their ideas and convey their thoughts. Additionally, the written variety of English often includes technical terms and jargon specific to different fields and professions, further adding to the complexity and richness of the language.
In terms of syntax, the written variety of English is characterized by its flexibility and variety of sentence structures. English allows for a wide range of syntactical constructions, including complex sentences with multiple clauses, passive constructions, and a variety of word orders. This flexibility in sentence structure allows writers to convey their ideas in a more nuanced and sophisticated manner, and to create a variety of stylistic effects in their writing.
Another peculiarity of the written variety of English is the use of punctuation and formatting conventions. English makes use of a variety of punctuation marks, such as commas, semicolons, colons, and dashes, to indicate pauses, divisions, and relationships between different elements of a sentence. Additionally, English uses formatting conventions such as italics, boldface, and underlining to emphasize certain words or phrases, and to structure the text in a visually appealing and organized manner.
Overall, the written variety of English language is a rich and diverse system that allows writers to express themselves with precision, nuance, and creativity. Its extensive vocabulary, flexible syntax, and unique punctuation and formatting conventions all contribute to the complexity and richness of the language, making it a powerful tool for communication and self-expression.
4. Stylistics stratification of the English vocabulary. The maim stylistic layers and groups of the English vocabulary
The English vocabulary can be stratified into various stylistic layers, each with its own distinct characteristics and usage. Some of the main stylistic layers and groups of the English vocabulary include:
1. Common/Colloquial: This is the most basic and informal layer of the vocabulary, used in everyday conversation and informal writing. It includes slang, contractions, and commonly used words and phrases.
2.Standard/Neutral: This layer is more formal and widely accepted in both spoken and written contexts. It includes standard English grammar and vocabulary that is commonly used in professional settings, media, and academic writing.
3.Technical/Specialist: This layer consists of vocabulary that is specific to a particular field or profession, such as scientific, medical, legal, or technical terms. These words are often highly specialized and may not be easily understood by those outside of the field.
4.Literary/Poetic: This layer includes vocabulary that is more creative and expressive, often found in literature, poetry, and creative writing. It may include archaic or obsolete words, as well as metaphors and imagery.
5.Archaisms and Obsolete Terms: This layer consists of words and phrases that are no longer in common use in contemporary English but may still be found in older texts or in specific contexts.
6.Jargon/Slang: This layer includes specialized vocabulary used by particular groups or subcultures, such as teenagers, musicians, or gamers. It may be difficult for outsiders to understand without knowledge of the specific culture or context.
7.Foreign Borrowings: This layer includes words and phrases borrowed from other languages, such as French, Latin, or Spanish. These borrowings can add richness and diversity to the English vocabulary.
Overall, the English vocabulary is a diverse and varied linguistic landscape, with multiple layers and groups that reflect the different contexts and styles in which language is used. Each layer has its own unique characteristics and conventions, contributing to the richness and versatility of the English language.
5. Standard English vocabulary (neutral words, common literary and common colloquial words)
Language is a powerful tool that reflects the diversity and richness of human communication. Standard English vocabulary encompasses a wide range of words that cater to different contexts and purposes. In this essay, we will explore three main categories of words within the standard English vocabulary: neutral words, common literary words, and common colloquial words.
Neutral Words
Neutral words form the foundational vocabulary of standard English. These words are devoid of strong emotional connotations and are used across various contexts without bias. Examples of neutral words include "person," "place," "thing," and "idea." These words serve as the building blocks of both written and spoken language, fitting seamlessly into formal and informal settings.
Common Literary Words
Common literary words add depth and sophistication to the English language. These words are often found in literary works, academic texts, and formal documents. Examples of common literary words include "significant," "consequence," "determine," and "analyze." By
incorporating these words into their vocabulary, individuals enhance the precision and eloquence of their speech, making it more suitable for academic and professional environments.
Common Colloquial Words
Common colloquial words constitute the everyday vocabulary used in informal oral communication. These words foster a sense of familiarity and informality in conversations. Examples of common colloquial words include "awesome," "chill," "hang out," and "cool." By employing these words, speakers create a relaxed and friendly atmosphere, making interactions more casual and approachable.
Impact and Importance
Understanding the nuances of standard English vocabulary is essential for effective communication. By mastering neutral words, individuals can convey information clearly and concisely across diverse settings. Incorporating common literary words adds sophistication and depth to one's language skills, enabling them to articulate complex ideas with precision. Embracing common colloquial words fosters a sense of connection and camaraderie in informal conversations, promoting a sense of ease and rapport among speakers.
6. Neutral words and their characteristics
Neutral words are an essential component of language that serve as the foundation for communication in various contexts. Here are some key characteristics of neutral words:
1.Lack of Emotional Bias: Neutral words do not carry strong emotional connotations or biases. They are used to convey information objectively without evoking specific feelings or reactions.
2.Versatility: Neutral words are versatile and can be used in a wide range of contexts without seeming out of place. They are commonly employed in both formal and informal settings.
3.Clarity: Neutral words are clear and straightforward, making them effective for conveying information without ambiguity or confusion. They help ensure that messages are easily understood by the audience.
4.Common Usage: Neutral words are part of everyday vocabulary and are commonly understood by speakers of the language. They form the basis of communication and are essential for expressing basic concepts.
5.Non-Judgmental: Neutral words do not pass judgment or express opinions. They simply describe people, objects, actions, or ideas without implying approval or disapproval.
6.Standardized: Neutral words adhere to standard grammar and syntax rules, making them universally accepted in written and spoken language. They contribute to the consistency and coherence of communication.
7.Foundational: Neutral words serve as building blocks for more complex language structures. They provide a solid framework for expanding vocabulary and expressing more nuanced ideas.
Overall, neutral words play a crucial role in effective communication by providing a neutral and objective means of conveying information. Their clarity, versatility, and lack of emotional bias make them indispensable in both everyday conversations and formal discourse.
7. Common literary words. Their basic features and functions.
Common standard literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech. They are used in formal communication. Literary words are mainly observed in the written form. One can always tell a literary word from a colloquial word, because literary words are used to satisfy communicative demands of official, scientific, poetic messages, while colloquial words are employed in non-official everyday communication. Literary words stand in opposition to colloquial/ It is esp apparent when pairs of synonyms stand in contrasting relation. kid (colloq.) infant (bookish, official) offspring (bookish, scientific); daddy (colloq.) male parent / ancestor (formal); carry on (colloq.) proceed (bookish, formal); get going /get started / Come on! (colloq.) commence (formal). The synonyms are not absolute. Stylistic difference+literary words aren't so much emotinally coloured. There are upper and lower ranges of literary words. They approach the neutral layer and have a tendency to pass into it.
8. Special literary vocabulary. Its varieties.
Literary vocabulary encompasses a wide range of specialized terms and expressions that are often used in the context of literature, writing, and literary analysis. Here are some varieties of special literary vocabulary:
1.Poetic Devices: This includes terms such as "metaphor," "simile," "alliteration," "assonance," "onomatopoeia," and "personification," which are used to describe specific techniques employed by poets to create vivid and evocative imagery in their work.
2.Literary Genres: Vocabulary related to different literary genres, such as "tragedy," "comedy," "sonnet," "epic," "drama," and "satire," helps to categorize and analyze works based on their thematic and structural characteristics.
3.Rhetorical Devices: These are techniques used to persuade or manipulate an audience, such as "hyperbole," "irony," "euphemism," "oxymoron," and "paradox." They are commonly used in both literary and non-literary contexts to create impact and convey meaning.
4.Narrative Elements: Terms like "plot," "setting," "characterization," "point of view," "conflict," and "resolution" are used to discuss the fundamental building blocks of storytelling and narrative construction.
5.Literary Theory Terminology: This includes terms like "structuralism," "postcolonialism," "feminism," "deconstruction," and "formalism," which are used to describe different critical approaches to analyzing literature.
6.Archetypal Symbols: Vocabulary related to archetypal symbols, such as "hero," "mentor," "quest," "trickster," and "the journey," is used to discuss recurring motifs and patterns in literature that represent universal human experiences.
7.Literary Criticism Terms: These include terms like "intertextuality," "deus ex machina," "stream of consciousness," "bildungsroman," and "pathos." They are used to describe specific concepts and techniques related to the analysis and interpretation of literary works.
8.Terms for Poetic Forms: Vocabulary specific to poetic forms, such as "sonnet," "haiku," "villanelle," "ode," and "ballad," helps to identify and discuss the unique structures and conventions of different types of poetry.
These varieties of special literary vocabulary are essential for discussing, analyzing, and appreciating the nuances of literary works, as well as for understanding the craft of writing and the tools available to writers for creating impactful and meaningful literature.
9. Terms. Their functioning and stylistic usage
Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science and therefore with a series of other terms belonging to that particular branch of science. They know no isolation; they always come in clusters, either in a text on the subject to which they belong, or in special dictionaries which, unlike general dictionaries, make a careful selection of terms. All these clusters of terms form the nomenclature, or system of names, for the objects of study of any particular branch of science.
Terms are characterized by a tendency to be monosemantic and therefore easily call forth the required concept. Terms may appear in scientific style, newspaper style, publicistic style, the belles-lettres style, etc. Terms no longer fulfill their basic function, that of bearing an exact reference to a given notion or concept. The their function is either to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with, or to make some references to the occupation of a character whose language would naturally contain special words and expressions. A term has a stylistic function when it is used to create an atmosphere or to characterize a person.
10. Archaic and historical words
Archaic words belong to Old English and are not recognized nowadays. The main function of old words is to create a realistic background to historical works of literature.
Archaisms are stylistically heterogeneous. They are usually thought to pertain to the upper strata of the vocabulary. As a general view this opinion is correct, but only with reference to the lexical units which, though obsolete, are not completely out of use. A high-flown archaic word must be popular enough not to become quite a stranger to the modern linguistic perception; besides, its meaning, its denotation must not collide with its highly positive connotation. Thus, the wellknown pronominal forms thou, thee, ye or the words like knight, hauberk (кольчуга), main (= ocean), etc. are high-flown archaisms. This is, however, hardly the case with words practically unknown to the public at large: they may produce the opposite stylistic impression, that of degradation (for detailed treatment see below).
Archaic words should not be confused with historic words. According to Prof. Morokhovsky, archaic words are old words for denoting still existing objects and concepts. They have
synonyms in Modern English, which oust the word in question (very often, a loan word). Thus, the noun main has been replaced by ocean; the verb to deem, by to consider, etc.
Historic words, on the other hand, denote already non-existing objects or concepts, which dropped out from realities of present-day life. One of the reasons why words disappear is the disappearance of their referents, i.e. the objects they denoted. Such archaisms are called 'material archaisms', or 'historical archaisms', such as yeoman, hauberk and the like.
The use of archaic words in fiction, for instance, in historical novels, serves to characterize the speech of the times, to reproduce its atmosphere, its couleur historique ('historical colour'). Numerous archaisms can be found in Walter Scott's novels (in the following examples the reader will find lexical archaisms, as well as archaic grammatical forms):
"Nay, we question you not," said the burgher; "although hark ye — I say, hark in your ear — my name is Pavilion."
11. Poetic and highly literary words
Their main function is to sustain a special evaluated atmosphere of poetry. Poetic words form an insignificant layer of special literary vocabulary. They are mostly archaic or very rarely used highly literary words. On the whole they are detached from the common literary vocabulary. The use of poetic words doesn't as a rule create the atmosphere of poetry, but it substitutes its expressiveness.
The common way of creating such words is compounding [young-eyed, rosy-fingered]. Poetic words and expressions are understandable to a limited number of readers. In modern poetry words are often used in strange combinations [the sound of shame].
12. Barbarisms and foreign words
The English Vocabulary contains a considerable layer of words called
barbarisms - words of foreign origin, not completely assimilated. Retaining their foreign appearance, barbarisms are considered to be on the outskirts of the literary language. Most of them have corresponding English synonyms:
e.g.: chic = stylish (шикарный, модный, нарядный)
en passant = in passing
ad infinitum = to infinity (бесконечность, безграничность)
For stylistic purposes we distinguish between barbarisms and foreign words proper.
Barbarisms are part of the English word-stock. Foreign words do not belong to the English Vocabulary. They are not registered in English dictionaries. In printed works they are usually italicized to indicate their alien nature or their stylistic value.
There are foreign words which fulfil a terminological function:
e.g.: udarnik, kolkhoz, solo, tenor, blitzkrieg, Luftwaffe.
Both foreign words and barbarisms are used in various language styles with various aims and in various functions:
1.One of these functions is to supply “local background colour” to depict local conditions of life, concrete fact and events, customs and habits.
For example: in a small German town, a boy with remarkable appetite is made the focus of attention. The author describes the peculiarities of the German menu by introducing several German words into his narrative:
“The little boy … had a famous appetite, and consumed schinken, and braten, and kartoffeln, and cranberry jam with a gallantry that did honour to his nation”.
(на этом вопросе я постепенно начала проваливаться в глубокую депрессию, апатию, принятие и негодование одновременно☺)
13. Literary coinages and nonce-words. Means of their creation. Their stylistic functions.
Neologism is a new word or a new meaning for an established word. When a word or a meaning is fixed in dictionaries, it is no longer new.
Some words are cined to be used at the moment of speech, possessing the property of temporariness. New coinages may become synonyms of some old words or substitute them.
•terminological coinages, indicating new-born concepts, which may result from the science or used with the need to understand the nature of the phenomenon better [computer].
•stylistic coinages are coined because their creators seek expressive utterance [thingism].
•none-words are coined for a particular occasion [I'm wifed in taxes and mother-in-lawed, and uncled, and aunted, and cousened within the inch of my life].
(Формируются в процессе формирования новых концептов и явлений в обществе, а такде создаются авторами – по-английски дохуя, я не выдерживала, простите)
14. Special colloquial vocabulary (types, characteristics)
The colloquial layer of words as qualified in most English and American dictionaries is not infrequently limited to a definite language community or confined to a special locality when it circulates. It falls into the following groups: 1. common colloquial words; 2. slang; 3. jargonisms; 4. professionalisms; 5. dialect words; 6. vulgar words; 7. colloquial coinages. They all have a tinge of informality or familiarity about them. There is nothing ethically improper in their stylistic colouring, except that they cannot be used in formal speech.
15. Slang. Its varieties and functions
Slang . Slang is part of the vocabularyconsisting of commonlyunderstood and widely used wordsand expressions of humorous and derogatory character – intentional substitutes for neutral or elevated words and expressions. Slang never goes stale, it is replaced by a new slangism. The reason of appearance of slang is in the aspiration of the speaker to novelty and concreteness. As soon as a slangish word comes to be used because of its intrinsic merits, not because it is the
wrong word and therefore a funny word, it ceases to be slang – it becomes a colloquial word, and later perhaps even an ordinary neutral word. Here are instances of words which first appeared as slang, but are quite neutral today: skyscraper, cab, taxi, movies, pub, .photo
Slang is not homogenious stylistically. There are many kinds of slang, e.g. Cockney, publichouse, commercial, military, theatrical, parliamentary and others. There is also a standard slang, the slang common to all those who though using received standard English in their writing and speech, also use an informal language.
Here are more examples of slang. Due to its striving to novelty slang is rich in synonyms.
FOOD: chuck, chow, grub, hash;
MONEY: jack, tin, brass, oof, slippery stuff.
Various figures of speech participate in slang formation.
16. Jargonisms. Its varieties and functions
Jargonisms is a recognized term for a group of words that exists in almost every language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group. Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. Most of the jargonisms of any language, and of the English language too, are absolutely incomprehensible to those outside the social group which has invented them. They may be defined as a code within a code, that is special meanings of words that are imposed on the recognized code—the dictionary meaning of the words.
Thus the word grease means 'money'; loaf means 'head'; a tiger hunter is 'a gambler'; a lexer is 'a student preparing for a law course'.
Jargonisms are social in character. They are not regional. In Britain and in the US almost any social group of people has its own jargon. The following jargons are well known in the English language: the jargon of thieves and vagabonds, generally known as cant; the jargon of jazz people; the jargon of the army, known as military slang; the jargon of sportsmen, and many others.
17. Professionalisms
Professionalisms are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work and at home. Professionalisms are correlated to terms. Terms, as has already been indicated, are coined to nominate new concepts that appear in the process of, and as a result of, technical progress and the development of science. In distinction from slang, jargonisms and professionalisms cover a narrow semantic field, for example connected with the technical side of some profession.
Professional words name anew already-existing concepts, tools or instruments, and have the typical properties of a special code. The main feature of a professionalism is its technicality. Professionalisms are special words in the non-literary layer of the English vocabulary, whereas terms are a specialized group belonging to the literary layer of words. Professionalisms are not known to simple people.
18. Vulgar words and phrases
Vulgar words or vulgarisms:
1)expletives and swear words which are of an abusive character, like 'damn', 'bloody', 'to hell', 'goddam' and, as some dictionaries state, used now, as general exclamations;
2)obscene words. These are known as four-letter words the use of which is banned in any form of intercourse as being indecent.
The function of expletives is almost the same as that of interjections, that is to express strong emotions, mainly annoyance, anger, vexation and the like. They are not to be found in any functional style of language except emotive prose, and here only in the direct speech of the characters.
19. Dialectal words.
This group of words is obviously opposed to the other groups of the non-literary English vocabulary. Dialectal words are form of a language that is spoken in a particular part of a country or by a particular group of people and that contains some words, grammar, or pronunciations that are different from the forms used in other parts or by other groups of people.
Following words may serve as examples: hinny from honey; cutty meaning a ‘naughty girl or woman’.
Most of the examples so far quoted come from the Scottish and the Northern dialects. Therefore many of the words fixed in dictionaries as dialectal are of Scottish origin. Dialectal words are only to be found in the style of emotive prose, and even here their use is confined to the function of characterizing personalities through their speech.
Dialectal words, unlike professionalisms, are confined in their use to a definite locality and most of the words deal with the everyday life of the country.
20. Types of lexical meanings of words.
Words in context may acquire lexical meanings not fixed in dictionaries, what we have called contextual meanings. The opposite of the primary meaning is transferred meanings.
So, lexical meaning can be of two types:
•Dictionary, contextual. The contextual meaning will always depend on the dictionary (logical) meaning.
•Transferred. The transferred meaning of a word may be fixed in dictionaries as a result of long and frequent use of the word other than in its primary meaning. In this case we register a derivative meaning of the word.
21. Foregrounding. Convergence and defeated expectancy as means of foregrounding.
Foregrounding is a literary device that emphasises ideas and symbols through the use of attention-seeking linguistic techniques which either repeat content or break established patterns. Foregrounding is commonly seen when linguistic features or parts of the text stand out. This